Burmese cuisine

, during which the monarch ceremonially ploughs a rice field outside the royal palace, to mark the traditional start of the rice-growing season. Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of rice cultivation, which first emerged in the country's Chindwin, Ayeyarwady, and Thanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE. By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants. Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes. A series of Burmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including khanon dok, shwe yin aye, mont let hsaung, and Yodaya mont di. receive food alms from a htamanè hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်). While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts called satuditha and ahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the Sadawhset Kyan (, ), written on a palm leaf manuscript in 1866 during the Konbaung dynasty. By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country. British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of Burmese Indian and Sino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine. These range from Indian breads such as naan and paratha to Chinese stir frying techniques and ingredients like tofu and soy sauce. ==Etiquette and customs==

Dining Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or daunglan, while sitting on a bamboo mat. Dishes are simultaneously served and shared. Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as u cha (, ). The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. Vegetarianism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month Vassa (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during Uposatha days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," thet that lut (သက်သတ်လွတ်, ). During this time, devout Buddhists observe eight or more precepts, including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon. Beef taboo The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals. Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power. although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the Kachin. Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of ahimsa (no harm). During the country's last dynasty, the Konbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public flogging. In 1885, Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk wrote the Nwa-myitta-sa (), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound. He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance. Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after Ne Win led a coup d'état and declared martial law in the country. Food theories In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (, apu za) or cooling (, a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the Chinese classification of food. Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish. The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially pregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hair. ==Cooking techniques==

Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance. Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques. Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger. == Regional cuisines ==

'', 'fermented' rice kneaded with fish and/or potato with twice-fried Shan tofu, is a popular local dish at Inle Lake. Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of Upper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; and Lower Myanmar, which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the Andaman Sea. Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with Rakhine cuisine. Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around Mawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food." Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including Yangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like fish sauce and ngapi (fermented seafood). The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing Regions), Shan State, and Kachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans. The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs. Fusion Chettiar () cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities. ==Dishes and ingredients==

Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour roselle leaves, astringent pennywort leaves, goat, mutton, and dried beans and lentils. Because a standardised system of romanisation for spoken Burmese does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese are approximated using IPA, and are provided (see IPA/Burmese for details). Preserved foods Myanmar is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as lahpet, pickled tea served with various accompaniments. The practice of eating tea dates in modern-day Myanmar back to prehistoric antiquity, reflecting the legacy of indigenous tribes who pickled and fermented tea leaves inside bamboo tubes, bamboo baskets, plantain leaves and pots. Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the Palaung people. Pon ye gyi (), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. Bagan is an important pon ye gyi producer. Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine. Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called mont. '', glutinous rice seasoned with oil and turmeric, is a common breakfast food. • Htamin gyaw ( ) – fried rice with boiled peas, sometimes with meat, sausage, and eggs. • San byok ( ) – rice congee with fish, chicken or duck often fed to invalids. • Danbauk ( , from Persian dum pukht) – Burmese-style biryani with either chicken or mutton served with mango pickle, a fresh salad of sliced onions, julienned cabbage, sliced cucumbers, fermented limes and lemons, fried dried chilies, and soup • Htamin jin (‌ ) – a rice, tomato and potato or fish salad kneaded into round balls dressed and garnished with crisp fried onion in oil, tamarind sauce, coriander and spring onions often with garlic, Chinese chive roots, fried whole dried chili, grilled dried fermented bean cakes () and fried dried tofu () on the side • Thingyan rice ( ) – fully boiled rice in candle-smelt water served with pickled marian plums Noodles . Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch or as a snack. Cellophane noodles, called kyazan (, ) and wheat-based noodles called khauk swe (), • Meeshay ( ) – rice noodles with pork or chicken, bean sprouts, rice flour gel, rice flour fritters, dressed with soy sauce, salted soybean, rice vinegar, fried peanut oil, chilli oil, and garnished with crisp fried onions, crushed garlic, coriander, and pickled white radish/mustard greens • Mont di – an extremely popular and economical fast-food dish where rice vermicelli are either eaten with some condiments and soup prepared from ngapi, or as a salad with powdered fish and some condiments. • Panthay khao swè ( ) – halal egg noodles with a spiced chicken curry. The dish is associated with Panthay community, a group of Burmese Chinese Muslims. • Sigyet khauk swè ( ) – wheat noodles with duck or pork, fried garlic oil, soy sauce and chopped spring onions. The dish originated from with the Sino-Burmese community , served with a thin hingyo'' broth. Noodle soups include: • Mohinga ( ) – the unofficial national dish, made with fresh thin rice noodles in a fish broth with onions, garlic, ginger, lemon grass and tender banana stem cores, served with boiled eggs, fried fishcake and Burmese fritters • Ohn-no khauk swè ( ) – curried chicken and wheat noodles in a coconut milk broth. It is comparable to Malaysian laksa and Northern Thai khao soi • Kyay oh ( ) – rice noodles in a broth of pork offal and egg, traditionally served in copper pot • Kawyei khao swè ( ) – noodles and duck (or pork) curried with five-spice powder in broth with eggs, comparable to Singaporean/Malaysian lor mee • Mi swan ( ) – thin wheat noodles, known as misua in Singapore and Malaysia. It is a popular option for invalids, usually with chicken broth. • Shan khauk swé ( ) – rice noodles with chicken or minced pork, onions, garlic, tomatoes, chili, crushed roasted peanuts, young snowpea vine, served with tofu fritters, and pickled mustard greens • Tofu Nway (တိုဖူးနွေး; Shan: တူဝ်းဖူယုင်; literally "warm tofu) - a warm, creamy Shan tofu dish made from yellow split peas. Salads Burmese salads (; transliterated athoke or athouk) are a diverse category of indigenous salads in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures. • Samusa thoke ( ) – samosa salad with onions, cabbage, fresh mint, potato curry, masala, chili powder, salt and lime • Kya zan thoke – glass vermicelli salad with boiled prawn julienne and mashed curried duck eggs and potatoes Curries -style meal featuring a curry broth, rice disks, and a requisite plate of blanched vegetables and dip. Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics. The most common variety of curry is called sibyan (; ), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked. • Chicken sibyan () – the classic Burmese curry, served with a thick gravy of aromatics • Nga thalaut paung ( ) – a curry of hilsa fish and tomatoes, which is slowly simmered to melt the fish bones • Egg curry () – a sour curry made with hardboiled duck or chicken eggs, cooked in tamarind paste and mashed tomatoes while nanbya (), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes. Other dishes include: • Burmese tofu ( ) – a tofu of Shan origin made from chickpea flour, eaten as fritters, in a salad, or in porridge forms • A sein kyaw ( ) – cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, green beans, baby corn, corn flour or tapioca starch, tomatoes, squid sauce • Ngapi daung () – a spicy Rakhine-style condiment made from pounded ngapi and green chili • Nga baung htoke ( ) – a Mon-style steamed parcel of mixed vegetables and prawns, wrapped in morinda and banana leaves • Wet tha chin ( ) – Shan-style preserved minced pork in rice Snacks selling an assortment of fritters and mont to passersby. Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called mont, ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional Burmese fritters, consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings. Savory snacks include: • Hpet htok (, ) – meat, pastry paper, ginger, garlic, pepper powder, and salt. Usually served with soup or noodles. • Samusa ( ) – Burmese-style samosa with mutton and onions served with fresh mint, green chilli, onions and lime • Burmese pork offal skewers ( ) – pork offal cooked in light soy sauce, and eaten with raw ginger and chili sauce. • Htamane ( ) – dessert made from glutinous rice, shredded coconuts and peanuts Sweet snacks include: • Mont let hsaung ( ) – tapioca or rice noodles, glutinous rice, grated coconut and toasted sesame with jaggery syrup in coconut milk • Sanwin makin ( ) – semolina cake with raisins, walnuts and poppy seeds inspired by Indian halwa • Hpaluda ( ) – rose water, milk, coconut jelly, coconut shavings, sometimes served with egg custard and ice cream, similar to Indian falooda • Saw hlaing mont () – a Rakhine-style baked sweet, made from millet, raisins, coconut and butter Fruits and fruit preserves Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert. Others include marian plum, mangosteen, sugar-apple, rambutan, durian, jackfruit, lychee, and pomegranate. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt. 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars: • red - locally called shweni (, ) • Dwarf Cavendish - locally called htawbat (, ) • Mysore - locally called Rakhine (), sweet and rounder in shape • Latundan - locally called htawbat (, ) == Beverages ==

Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on temperance. Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike. Various liquid concoctions made from fruits and coconut milk, including sugarcane juice, and mont let hsaung () are also popular. Indigenous fermented drinks like palm wine are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth or consommé served from a communal bowl. Burmese tea . Plain green tea, yay nway gyan (, ), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar. Ethnic communities, including the Kachin and Shan, also brew local moonshines. Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called (). The khaung of the Chin peoples is brewed using millet seeds. Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger. == Food establishments ==

Restaurants Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called htamin hsaing (; ). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings. Tea shops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life. Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long-distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals. Burmese salads, snacks, and fritters are especially popular street foods. In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city. Night markets, called nya zay (), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars." The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as Zegyo Market in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings. == See also ==