Cattle

The term cattle was borrowed from Anglo-Norman (replacing native Old English terms like , now considered archaic, poetic, or dialectal), itself from Medieval Latin 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land). The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense. In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, cattle often means livestock, as opposed to deer, which are wild. == Characteristics ==

Description Cattle are large artiodactyls, mammals with cloven hooves, meaning that they walk on two toes, the third and fourth digits. Like all bovid species, they can have horns, which are unbranched and are not shed annually. Coloration varies with breed; common colors are black, white, and red/brown, and some breeds are spotted or have mixed colors. Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows, for example, weigh , while the bulls weigh . Cattle breeds vary widely in size; the tallest and heaviest is the Chianina, where a mature bull may be up to at the shoulder, and may reach in weight. The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25–30 years. Beef cattle go to slaughter at about 18 months, and dairy cows at about five years. Digestive system changes in response. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach. Cattle regurgitate and re-chew their food in the process of chewing the cud, like most ruminants. While feeding, cows swallow their food without chewing; it goes into the rumen for storage. Later, the food is regurgitated to the mouth, a mouthful at a time, where the cud is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro-organisms in the cow's stomach. A cow's udder has two pairs of mammary glands or teats. Farms often use artificial insemination, the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract; this allows farmers to choose from a wide range of bulls to breed their cattle. Estrus too may be artificially induced to facilitate the process. Copulation lasts several seconds and consists of a single pelvic thrust. Cows seek secluded areas for calving. After their first mating, semi-wild Highland cattle heiffers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%. Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day, spending some 46 minutes suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling, peaking at roughly 6am, 11:30am, and 7pm. Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heiffer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cognition in cows and competitive display in bulls. Cows can categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals. Cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour. Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation when scanning novel and familiar stimuli. They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye (using the right brain hemisphere), but the right eye for familiar stimuli. Individual cattle have also been observed to display different personality traits, such as fearfulness and sociability. A case of multi-purpose tool use has been documented, where a cow named Veronika uses different ends of a deck brush to scratch different parts of her body. Senses Vision is the dominant sense; cattle obtain almost half of their information visually. Being prey animals, cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all around, with eyes that are on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a field of view of 330°, but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to some 30° to 50°, compared to 140° in humans. Cattle avoid bitter-tasting foods, selecting sweet foods for energy. Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH. Their hearing is better than that of horses, but worse at localising sounds than goats, and much worse than dogs or humans. They can distinguish between live and recorded human speech. Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life, indicating social and reproductive status. Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine. Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only. == Behavior ==

Dominance hierarchy watch a fight between bulls. Cattle live in a dominance hierarchy. This is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus, however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species. In calves, agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases, but not as group size changes, whereas in adults, the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size. Dominance relationships in semi-wild highland cattle are very firm, with few overt aggressive conflicts: most disputes are settled by agonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors with no physical contact between opponents, reducing the risk of injury. Dominance status depends on age and sex, with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age. When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately . Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area. Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage. Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep, but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits. Temperament and emotions In cattle, temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity, overall health, and reproduction. Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed: shyness–boldness, exploration–avoidance, activity, aggressiveness, and sociability. There are many indicators of emotion in cattle. Holstein–Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates, indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning. After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves react, indicating low mood. Similarly, after hot-iron dehorning, calves react to the post-operative pain. The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state. Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle. Sleep The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day. Cattle do have a stay apparatus, but do not sleep standing up; they lie down to sleep deeply. == Genetics ==

as some production traits, and often, the two can be related. The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling. Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is about 0.36. Quantitative trait loci have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle. == Evolution ==

Phylogeny Cattle have played a key role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early Neolithic age. Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in central Anatolia, the Levant, and Western Iran, which gave rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, which produced the indicine line. Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Çayönü Tepesi, in what is now southeastern Turkey, and Dja'de el-Mughara, in what is now northern Syria. Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants. Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from the North African aurochs. Taxonomy with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus x Bos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the dzo or yattle), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider the latter part of the genus Bos, as well. The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, around 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate a similar appearance to that of the aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, producing the Heck breed. A group of taurine-type cattle exist in Africa; these represent either an independent domestication event or the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but they are genetically distinct; some authors name them as a separate subspecies, Bos taurus africanus. The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N'Dama, Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn. are those that have been allowed to go wild. Feral populations exist in many parts of the world, sometimes on small islands. Some, such as Amsterdam Island cattle, Chillingham cattle, and Aleutian wild cattle, have become sufficiently distinct to be described as breeds. == Husbandry ==

Practices s, the cattle are not allowed to wander and graze, as food is brought to them in a feedlot. Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce tuberculosis susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease. In the United States, many cattle are raised intensively, kept in concentrated animal feeding operations, meaning there are at least 700 mature dairy cows or at least 1000 other cattle stabled or confined in a feedlot for "45 days or more in a 12-month period". File:Cattle inspected for ticks.jpg|A Hereford being inspected for ticks. Cattle are often restrained in cattle crushes when given medical attention. File:Anneau anti tetee P1190486.jpg|A calf with a nose ring to prevent it from suckling, usually to assist in weaning File:Beef cattle in a feedlot in New Mexico.jpg|Cattle feedlot in New Mexico, United States Population Historically, the cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s. Cattle have the largest biomass of any animal species on Earth, at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely by Antarctic krill at 379 million tonnes and humans at 373 million tonnes. In 2023, the countries with the most cattle were India with 307.5 million (32.6% of the total), Brazil with 194.4 million, and China with 101.5 million, out of a total of 942.6 million in the world. == Economy ==

Cattle are kept on farms to produce meat, milk, and leather, and sometimes to pull carts or farm implements. Meat The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves as veal. Other body parts are used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney, heart and oxtail. Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy animals, are slaughtered each year for food. About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle. World cattle meat production in 2021 was 72.3 million tons. File:Hereford bull in a field by the B4452 (cropped).jpg|The Hereford is a widespread beef breed, introduced in the 18th century File:Cattle Selwyn Road Boulia Shire Central Western Queensland P1080822 (cropped).jpg|Australian Droughtmaster cattle on an extensive farm in Queensland, Australia File:Aberdeen Angus im Gadental 2.JPG|Aberdeen Angus, a popular small breed, here in Austria with a traditional cattle bell File:World Production Of Meat, Main Items.svg|Beef is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide. File:Beef_production_1961_2021.png|Beef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years. File:Production Of Cattle Meat (2021).svg|Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021. Dairy Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein-Friesian, are used to produce milk, Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods. For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it is generally slaughtered at a young age to produce veal. Cows produce milk until three weeks before birth. Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. The Holstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. The average in the UK is about 22 litres per day. India further produces 94.4 million tons of buffalo milk, making it (in 2023) the world's largest milk producer; its dairy industry employs some 80 million people. File:Cow female black white.jpg|Holstein cattle are the primary dairy breed, bred for high milk production. File:Hand milking a cow at Cobbes Farm Museum.jpg|The milking of cattle was once largely by hand. Demonstration at Cogges Manor Farm, Oxfordshire File:2014-07-25 Melkkarussel - Hemme Milch (5).jpg|A modern rotary milking parlour, Germany File:World Production Of Bovine Milk.svg|World production of bovine milk (cow + buffalo) Draft animals Oxen are cattle trained as draft animals. Oxen can pull heavier loads and for a longer period of time than horses. Oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. There are some 11 million draft oxen in sub-Saharan Africa, while in 1998 India had over 65 million oxen. At the start of the 21st century, about half the world's crop production depended on land preparation by draft animals. Hides Cattle are not often kept solely for hides, and they are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are used mainly for leather products such as shoes. In 2012, India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides. Cattle hides account for about 65% of the world's leather production. == Health ==

Pests and diseases Cattle are subject to pests including arthropod parasites such as ticks (which can in turn transmit diseases caused by bacteria and protozoa), and diseases caused by pathogens including bacteria and viruses. Some viral diseases are spread by insects—i.e. bluetongue disease is spread by midges. Psoroptic mange is a disabling skin condition caused by mites. Bovine tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium; it causes disease in humans and in wild animals such as deer and badgers. Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by a virus, affects a range of hoofed livestock and is highly contagious. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is a neurodegenerative disease spread by a prion, a misfolded brain protein, in contaminated meat. Among the intestinal parasites of cattle are Paramphistomum flukes, affecting the rumen, and hookworms in the small intestine. Role of climate change by the liver, causing lipidosis. Cattle eat less when heat stressed, resulting in ruminal acidosis, which can lead to laminitis. Cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures by panting more often; this rapidly decreases carbon dioxide concentrations at the price of increasing pH, respiratory alkalosis. To deal with this, cattle are forced to shed bicarbonate through urination, at the expense of rumen buffering. These two pathologies can both cause lameness.--> This worsens as Calliphora blowflies increase in number with continued warming, spreading mastitis-causing bacteria. Ticks too are likely to increase in temperate zones as the climate warms, increasing the risk of tick-borne diseases. Both beef and milk production are likely to experience declines due to climate change. == Impact of cattle husbandry ==

On public health Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue (for animal welfare and productivity), a public health issue (to limit the spread of disease), and a food safety issue (to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat). These concerns are reflected in farming regulations. These rules can become political matters, as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain. Cattle disease attracted attention in the 1980s and 1990s when bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) broke out in the United Kingdom. BSE can cross into humans as the deadly variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease; 178 people in the UK had died from it by 2010. On the environment . The gut flora of cattle produce methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, with each cow belching out 100kg a year. Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of stored manure. The FAO estimates that in 2015, about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions were due to cattle farming. Reducing methane emissions quickly helps limit climate change. which can cause environmental harms such as soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination. In many world regions, overgrazing by cattle has reduced biodiversity of the grazed plants and of animals at different trophic levels in the ecosystem. A well documented consequence of overgrazing is woody plant encroachment in rangelands, which significantly reduces the carrying capacity of the land over time. On animal welfare production in individual crates has attracted welfare concerns. Cattle husbandry practices including branding, castration, dehorning, ear tagging, nose ringing, restraint, tail docking, the use of veal crates, and cattle prods have raised welfare concerns. Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area. High stocking density can affect cattle health, welfare, productivity, and feeding behaviour. Densely-stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner, increasing the risk of teat infection, mastitis, and embryo loss. The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as in concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots, auctions, and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare. To produce milk, most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement to retain the cows' milk for human consumption. Dairy cattle are frequently artificially inseminated. Animal welfare advocates are critical of this practice, stating that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf. Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups: rodeos and bullfighting. Such groups oppose rodeo activities including bull riding, calf roping and steer roping, stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress, injury, and death to the animals. In Spain, the Running of the bulls faces opposition due to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event. == In culture ==

From early in civilisation, cattle have been used in barter. Cattle play a part in several religions. Veneration of the cow is a symbol of Hindu community identity. Slaughter of cows is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union, and in Nepal. The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac. The astrological sign Taurus is represented as a bull in the Western zodiac. File:Nuremberg chronicles f 108r 1.png|St Luke the evangelist depicted with a bull in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle File:UK Durham Dun-Cow.jpg|A legend claims that monks carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert were led by a milk maid who had lost her dun cow. They built Durham Cathedral where it was found. File:Aelbert Cuyp - Young Herdsman with Cows - WGA5829.jpg|Dutch Golden Age painting: Young Herdsman with Cows by Aelbert Cuyp, 1655–60 File:Norske Folkelivsbilleder 08 - En Aften ved Sæteren (Knud Bergslien).jpg|An Evening at the Hut of the Cow-Herdesses, Knud Bergslien, before 1858 File:Arulmigu Rajamariamman Devasthanam, JB (2025) - img 57 (cropped).jpg|Kamadhenu, a Hindu cow goddess. Arulmigu Rajamariamman Temple, Johor Bahru, Malaysia File:Khamba and Thoibi (The Capture of the Wild Bull).jpg|The hero of Meitei mythology, Khuman Khamba, capturing the bull Kao File:Shingyu.jpg|The God-bull Shingyu, Kyoto, Japan File:Miao zhuiniu ritual 2016 03.jpg|Cattle sacrifice ceremony in Miao folk religion, Hunan, China == See also ==