Jeolla Jeolla Province was the revolution's center, completely seized by the rebels. They formed the core of the Anti-Japanese Frontier and often aided
Gyeongsang and
Chungcheong rebels. Kim Inbae of
Gwangyang and Yi Bangeon of
Jangheung formed the core of
South Jeolla rebels.
Namwon and Unbong Namwon and
Unbong were ruled by Kim Gae-nam's rebels. However, Kim Gae-nam had gone to attack
Cheongju far to the north, and in his absence, the governmental soldiers attacked Namwon. On 13 November, the rebels were driven away from the outskirts of Namwon in a small battle. The 3,000 rebels fled to Namwon Fortress. Jo Byeongho, the governmental leader, led 2,000 soldiers armed with modern weapons to besiege Namwon. Although the fortress was bombed and shelled, the rebels did not come out. Finally, the governmental troops stacked hay around the east, west, and south walls and burned the hay. The wooden doors burned along, and the rebels fled through the north door. Hundreds of rebels were killed in the Siege of Namwon.
Jindo In
Jindo, the third largest island of Korea (after
Jeju and
Geoje), Na Chihyeon of
Naju converted the population to Donghak in January 1892. After the fall of Jeonju Fortress, the Jindo magistrate Yi Heuiseung (who, like Jo, built two monuments to himself) fled. However, Confucian scholars maintained order on the island through an army called Suseonggun. In July, Son Haenggwon assaulted Susseonggun bases, taking matchlock rifles, swords, bullets, gunpowder, and tridents. At a similar time, Park Jungjin attacked the Suseonggun at Shimijang village. He was killed, and his daughter captured; descendants destroyed the family tree and burned down the house. After the arrival of new officials, the Jindo rebels joined the Naju rebels. Most were captured and returned to
Jindo. On 10 October, 1,322 soldiers, composed mainly of slaves and lower officials, were sent to defend Jindo against possible rebel attacks. In December, rebels who had
fought under Yi Bangeon hid in Jindo after the Battle of Seokdae Fields. However, the rebels had lost all military power and were captured and imprisoned. On 27 December, Japanese soldiers executed fifty rebels. Cheondoism remained in Jindo until the 1950s.
Gyeongsang Gyeongsang Province had a solid Confucian influence, and the casualties of Yi Pil-je's Revolt in 1871 were still fresh. It took until August for Gyeongsang rebels to begin revolting. Suppression of revolts was an organized effort, with
Toposa officials specializing in anti-rebel campaigns.
Jinju The forces of the Southwest coasts of Korea were unique in that the Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces cooperated to attack
Jinju Fortress. They are collectively termed under the name 'Jinju Rebels.' On 7 May, Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu, built a
Jibgangso in
Suncheon,
Jeolla Province. On 1 September, Kim crossed the Gyeongsang-Jeolla boundary. His strategy was to charge through the southern coastline to
Busan and thus grasp the Japanese-Korean borderline. Meanwhile, Hadong and Jinju, who were Kim's targets, were experiencing rebel activities. Hadong rebels were chased west by the government, joining Kim Inbae. With the guidance of the Hadong rebels, Kim Inbae captured Hadong on 7 September. The leadership recruited rebels in Jinju by sending out public documents in significant markets. On 8 September 1894, 7,000 rebels gathered in Sugok Market and established the Chungyeong Daedoso, a center of rebel activities. By 17 September, a joint army of Suncheon and Jinju rebels had captured the Jinju fortress. The rebels held flags signaling their Po and Jeob and spread manifestos titled
To the People of the Towns of Gyeongsang throughout nearby villages. The manifesto said the following. • The state is the people, and the people are the state. • We have had a council in
Jinju to punish the Japanese invasion. • All believers in Donghak must rise and punish corrupt officials who support the
Japanese. • Report anti-rebel armies to the Chunggyeong Daedoso. In response to the fall of the Jinju Fortress, the government sent Ji Seokyeong as
Toposa of Jinju, a government official who specialized in suppressing the Donghak revolutions. On 10 October, 400 rebels gathered in Mount Geumo, a few kilometers west of Jinju, where Japanese forces ambushed them. Although the rebels lost more than seventy men in the Battle of Mount Geumo, the rebels still held Jinju Fortress. On 14 October, 5,000 rebels defended Mount Goseong Fortress against the Japanese. Using the fortress, the rebels fought fiercely against Colonel Suzuki's Japanese battalion but were ultimately defeated by Japanese firepower. One hundred eighty-seven rebels were killed, causing Mount Goseong to be called Mount Gosireong after the sound that a decomposing corpse makes when it rains. The remnants of the rebels fled to
Mount Jiri, where they became the
Righteous Army.
Chungcheong Chungcheong rebels were under the command of Son Byong-hi, who led the Northern Jeob into battle at
Ugeumchi. After the defeat at Ugeumchi, Son continued the rebellion until the Battle of Jonggok on 18 December. Chungcheong was the location of the December battles.
Cheongju On 9 October, before the Council of Samrye had reached its conclusion, there was a minor skirmish in
Daejeon, at the time a small village called Hanbat, between rebels and governmental forces. This came to be called the Daejeon Massacre. Seventy-eight rebels gave 78 government soldiers alcohol, then killed them while drunk. Meanwhile, the city of Cheongju was the Donghak division commanded by the Great Jeobju, Son Cheonmin. Kim Gae-nam and Son Cheonmin cooperated to attack Cheongju in the Battle of Cheongju on 9 December 1894. Because Kim did not fight at Ugeumchi, his army of 25,000 was still strong. When Jeon and Son gathered the rebel forces in Samrye, Kim did not cooperate. He began his attack only after the
Battle of Ugeumchi, and by 9 December, he reached Cheongju Fortress. Kim's opponent was Kuwabara Eiziro and his Japanese battalion, along with governmental troops with little morale. Kim's 15,000 men attacked from the South, while Son Cheonmin's 10,000 attacked from the North. The defenders of Cheongju lacked morale due to the Daejeon Massacre, and Kim nearly broke through the south door. Eiziro suddenly assaulted the rebels, and Kim retreated to Muneui. Two hundred rebels were killed in the Battle of Cheongju. The rebels also lost large amounts of weaponry, including many rebel banners, thousands of bows and arrows, 140 rifles, 2,000 flintlock muskets, 150 kilograms of gunpowder, two cannons, and 50 horses. After the Battle of Cheongju, Kim went south to Muneui but was defeated again. He went into hiding, just as Jeon Bong-jun did.
Northern Chungcheong Although Choe Sihyeong had banned rebel activities among the Northern Jeob during the spring of 1894, many Chungcheong rebels were Northern Jeob. By 22 March, rebels of Hoenggang, Yeongdeung, Cheongsan,
Boeun,
Okcheon, Jinjam, Muneui,
Goesan, and Yeongpung were already giving the wealth of the rich to the poor, and beat and castrated corrupt
Yangban. However, the Chungju rebels temporarily stopped activities due to the beginning of the
Sino-Japanese War. The
Battle of Pungdo and the
Battle of Seonghwan were both fought in
Chungcheong Province, and the war sparked anti-Japanese sentiment among the former rebels. In July, 1,000 rebels wandered through various towns, building earthen fortresses in preparation for a Japanese invasion of
Chungcheong. The rebels took weaponry from the governmental storages and trained themselves. In August, a small battle was between the Northern and the Southern Jeob. On 12 October, Choe Sihyeong ordered the Northern Jeob to revolt. The rebels of Northern Chungcheong organized under the Jeob and Po and began active revolts. More than a hundred battles took place in
Northern Chungcheong in this period. The Gwandong Po won against a Japanese battalion in the Battle of Goesan under the leadership of Sim Songhak. The rebels then reached Boeun, thus severing all direct roads between
Seoul and
Jeolla. The revolt flared even greater when Son Byong-hi joined the
Northern Chungcheong rebels. Survivors of the Battle of Taein joined the rebels as well. On 18 December, 2,600 rebel forces gathered in Jonggok. The rebels included the great Northern leader Son Byeonghui, whose family lived near Jonggok, and the patriarch of Donghak, Choe Sihyeong. Japanese sources report that the rebels were cooking meals when the Japanese attacked them. Because of the surprise attack, the rebels were not able to put up a suitable defense, leading to 2,500 rebels out of 2,600 being killed. (Some scholars prefer the term Jonggok Massacre.) Both Choe and Son survived but fled towards the South. Minor skirmishes continued in this region until 28 December.
Battle of Mount Seseong The rebels of
Cheonan,
Hongseong, and northwestern Chungcheong were defeated in the Battle of Mount Seseong. This battle was also the key to Jeon Bong-jun's plan to capture
Seoul. In August, 1,500 rebels revolted in
Cheonan and took governmental weapons. After organizing their army in Mount Soto, the rebels camped in Mount Seseong with their newfound weaponry. Mount Seseong was more of a low hill, 22 meters high, defended by a low wall, which has been in use since the
Proto-Three Kingdoms Age. The rebel leaders were Kim Yongheui, Kim Hwaseong, Kim Seongji, Kim Bokyong, Kim Yeongu, and Won Keumok. On 18 November, two Japanese platoons were located on the northern slopes, another platoon to the northeast and another to the southeast. At dawn, the southeast platoon ambushed the rebels, who resisted for two hours, aided by their superior knowledge of the terrain. However, they were forced to retreat to the west, where they were ambushed again by the two northern platoons. Three hundred seventy rebels were killed, 770 were wounded, and 17 were captured. The rebels also lost 140 guns, two trumpets, 228 spears, 26,500 Chinese bullets, 30 flags, 226 sacks of rice, and 13 sacks of barley. Kim Bokyong was captured and executed on the spot, and the other leaders were executed on 24 and 27 November. The hill was known as Mount Siseong, meaning 'Mountain washed with blood.'
Gyeonggi Because
Gyeonggi was very close to Seoul, rebel activities in Gyeonggi were few. The largest Gyeonggi rebel groups, numbering 1,000 rebels, were in
Yicheon,
Yeoju,
Anseong, and other parts of Southeastern Gyeonggi. The Gyeonggi rebels retreated south to
Chungcheong, joining the rebels of
Northern Chungcheong. Most were killed in the Battle of Jonggok (see above).
Gangwon Gangwon rebels can be divided into two groups: the rebels of
Gangneung and the rebels of
Hoengseong and
Wonju. Rebels from
Northern Chungcheong or
Gyeonggi occasionally crossed into
Wonju. Gangwon rebels were especially marked by guerrilla warfare.
Gangneung and Pyeongchang In these regions, rebels would occupy Gangneung, then flee to mountainous locations such as
Pyeongchang, then return to
Gangneung. In September, more than 1,000 rebels attacked
Gangneung, which lacked defenses. The rebels gave one sack of rice to each peasant by taking the wealth of the rich and built strongholds in most marketplaces. The rebels formed their court, lowered taxes, and punished corrupt
Yangban and rich
Sangmin. On 7 September, an anti-rebel battalion led by Yi Hoewon assaulted the sleeping rebels in the rainy dawn. Twenty rebels were killed, and Yi's forces took seven guns, 157 spears, and two horses. The rebels passed the Daegwanryeong Pass into Pyeongchang. By late September, the rebels had reorganized and recaptured
Gangneung. they also occupied
Pyeongchang,
Yeongweol, and
Jeongseon. In response, the Japanese army sent Captain Ishimori against the Gangneung rebels on 3 November. On 5 November, 10,000 rebels had a two-hour-long battle against Ishimori's troops but were ultimately defeated. The rebels fled to
Jeongseon. On 6 November, the governmental troops killed ten rebels in Jeongseon and burned down 70 houses. The rebels again fled to
Pyeongchang. Ishimori fought against 3,000 rebels in Pyeongchang on 1 December 1894. The rebels scattered after an hour of battle. Seventy rebels were instantly killed, 30 died from their wounds, and ten prisoners were killed for attempted rebellion. The Gangneung rebels ceased to exist after this battle.
Hoengseong, Wonju, and Hongcheon Rebels of these regions were primarily guerrillas in mountainous terrain. The rebel leader was the legendary Cha Giseok, the Great Jeobju of the
Gwandong Region. He led 1,000 rebels, who punished corrupt
Yangban and collected taxes from merchants. It is said that Cha killed hundreds of
Yangban. On 13 October, Cha attacked Dongchang, where the taxes collected in Gangwon were brought to Seoul by boat. He burned down Dongchang and gave the taxes to the peasants. The magistrate of Hongcheon reports that after the destruction of Dongchang, more and more people joined Cha's army. The government asked Maeng Yeongjae, a Confucian scholar, to conquer Cha's 'crowd of roving thieves.' Maeng, suppressing the rebels of
Yicheon at the time, gladly obliged. On 21 October, Maeng and Cha battled in the Jangya Fields, in which more than 30 rebels were killed. The rebels fled to Seoseok, into the 'Seonang Pass.' It was so named because there was an
altar to the deity
Seonangshin in the past. On 22 October, 2,000 rebels were killed in the consequent Battle of Jajak Pass, the largest battle in
Gangwon Province before the Korean War. The rebels lacked guns, and they used birch branches as weapons. They also lacked pots and cooked rice over cattle hide. Because of the narrowness of the pass, the rebels were crowded, and it was easy for Maeng's troops to fire into the camp and kill the rebels. Maeng himself reports that "it was impossible to see how many died," but descendants have estimated 1,800~2,000. Descendants also note that the battle continued for three or four days. The Seonang Pass was renamed Jajak Pass because the blood made a 'Jajak' sound as it rolled down the pass. On 26 October, the survivors, including Cha, regathered. On 11 November, they began the Battle of Mount Odae, in which Maeng's soldiers surrounded Mount Odae and began to climb it and defeat the rebels inside. One hundred rebels were killed, and 40 houses were burned. Cha was captured on 14 November and beheaded for treason in
Chuncheon.
Hwanghae 1893, the Joseon Dynasty banned gold mining in
Hwanghae Province. Although Hwanghae leaders, such as
Kim Gu the 'Baby Jeobju' (Kim Gu was eighteen at the time, compared to the 40-year-old Jeon Bong-jun or the 32-year-old Son Byong-hi), were believers in Donghak, most of the rebels were gold miners. Lieutenant Suzuku classified Hwanghae rebels in three ways: • True Donghak, "who mutter incantations and believe that their faith shall cure diseases, bring wealth, and lengthen life." • Temporary Donghak, "who do not believe the teachings... but join the Donghak religion." • False Donghak, "those... who hate foreigners... are suppressed by local magistrates, suffer from inflation, or can no longer mine for gold. Most are gold miners, and that is because... gold mining was banned last year, and... they no longer have money, and they wish for revenge".
Haeju Haeju was one of the two provincial capitals to fall to the rebels (the other being
Jeonju). The defeat of the Haeju rebels is documented in Lieutenant Suzuku's
Conquest of the Donghak of Hwaghae. By 27 November, the rebels had captured most of the Hwanghae coast, including Haeju, without a significant battle. However, at the dawn of 27 November, 400 rebels camped on Pyeongsan were assaulted by governmental forces and fled south to Nucheon. Knowing that the Japanese and the government troops were chasing them, they hurriedly ran to Nucheon. Suzuku captured many Donghak food supplies in Nucheon, including "hundreds of sacks of millet." On 29 November, Suzuku captured the town of Gajichon. However, there were no men in Gajichon. When the women of Gajichon were interrogated, they revealed that all grown men had been ordered to go to the town of
Onjeong. Suzuku's soldiers burned four sacks of rice cakes in Gajichon. The Japanese reached Onjeong, only to find it empty. The magistrate of Onjeong said that the rebels had never come and that they were to go to Haeju rather than Onjeong. Haeju, too, was empty. The governor of
Hwanghae said that "every town outside of Haeju is full of thieves... two-thirds of all towns in Hwanghae are full of the Donghak raiders". With the guidance of the officials of Haeju, the Japanese defeated hundreds of rebels in the hour-long Battle of Gohyeonjang, killing "tens of thieves." They also captured and beheaded several rebels and burned five houses. Kim Gu and his rebels sought to reoccupy
Haeju and attacked Japanese scouts at 6:00 am on 2 December 1894. The battle continued until 8:00 when the rebels finally fled. Tens of rebels were again killed, and many were captured. Suzuku discovered a manifesto from the captured rebels written by Choe Sihyeong, the Donghak patriarch. The manifesto proved that the Haeju rebels were under the command of Choe Sihyeong and the Northern Jeob leaders. The rebels gathered in Cheongdan, 2.5 kilometers away from Haeju. Seven thousand rebels were camped in the east and the South, and 400 were hidden in the pine forests. Ten thousand were camped 400 meters away, and 14,000 were camped a kilometer away. Because the rebels lacked rifles and other modern weaponry, they were crushed after three Japanese strikes. However, the rebels did not retreat. Because the Japanese also lacked
ammunition due to the large number of rebels, they finally directly charged at the rebels. Although the rebels only had old-fashioned muskets, the superior numbers of the rebels wore out the Japanese soldiers. The rebels fled and were chased for 600 meters. Minor skirmishes continued until January 1895, and
Kim Gu hid in the house of An Taehun, a Catholic and the father of
An Junggeun, until 1896.
Pyongan and Hamgyong Pyongan Province had little rebel activity. It suffered extreme casualties in the
First Sino-Japanese War, especially at the
Battle of Pyongyang. There were occasional reports of rebels killing magistrates or attacking Japanese support lines, but such instances were rare. Also, there were only two Jeobju for all of Pyongan, compared with seven for
Hwanghae and Gyeonggi, ten for
Gangwon, seventeen for
Chungcheong, nineteen for
Gyeongsang, and twenty-five for
Jeolla. There were minor incidents of rebellions in
Hamgyong: == Fall ==