Wildlife of North Macedonia

river valley lies at the centre of North Macedonia, and much of the country is mountainous. North Macedonia spans in the middle of the Balkan Peninsula. The landlocked country is centred around the Vardar river valley, with the national borders being marked by mountain ranges. Its diverse landscape creates a variety of local climates, which can be divided into eight biomes. The varied habitats of the country, including both natural and man-made environments, can be divided into 28 broad types, The overall climate is temperate, with the area undergoing four seasons throughout the year. However, the varied geography means that there is significant local climatic variety. Precipitation also varies significantly. North Macedonia contains of surface water. Its 35 rivers fall into three river basins, with one basin each flowing into the Aegean Sea, the Adriatic Sea, and the Black Sea. The majority of the country, , falls within the Agean Basin, which contains Lake Dojran. of this basin is covered by the Vardar river and its tributaries. The remaining of the Aegean drainage basin is covered by the Strumica river and its tributaries. The main river of the Adriatic basin is Black Drim, which begins at Lake Ohrid. Lake Prespa also falls within this basin. Under some accounting there are also three minor drainage basins, which combined cover just over 1% of North Macedonia. Altogether, lakes cover 2% of the country, about . The three large lakes mentioned above are tectonic lakes. Lake Ohrid is , and has an average depth of . It is thought to be 2–3 million years old. Lake Prespa is , with an average depth of . Lake Dojran is , with a maximum depth of just . These three lakes are split between North Macedonia and neighbouring countries. Around 43 glacial lakes exist in the mountains. There are also 111 are artificial lakes, including large reservoirs. A complex geological history means the country's surface rocks originate from many periods of Earth's history. There are 13 mountains whose heights exceed , with the highest being above sea level. Around 50% of the country is considered mountainous, containing many gorges and valleys. Caves, especially in limestone mountains found in the west, support a variety of cave fauna, and contain their own lakes. Forests cover of the country, 90% of which is within state-owned land. Agricultural land covers , including both actively used land and land that is able to be quickly cultivated. Pastures make up 757,000 of this agricultural land. ==Plants==

At least 3700 species of vascular plants have been identified in North Macedonia, of which 116 are endemic or near-endemic. Forested land expanded by 3.5% in the decade leading up to 2013, reflecting a decrease in annual logging, deliberate efforts to expand forested area, and a reduction in livestock. This recovery is not shared by all forest types however, with coniferous and mixed forest coverage reducing in size. As of 2013, 58% of the forest was deciduous, 30% was mixed, 7% was coniferous, and 5% was considered degraded. Some deliberate forestation has been undertaken with the invasive Robinia pseudoacacia and Ailanthus altissima. Broadleaf tree woodlands, dominated by alder, birch, poplar, and willow species, are some of the country's most endangered habitats. Swamp woodlands are dominated by Alnus glutinosa. Beech forests are dominated by oaks and beech species. Oaks, chestnuts, hophornbeams, and Carpinus orientalis dominate deciduous woodlands. Other habitats contain many conifer species. 314 species of flowering plants (11% of all flowering plants in the country) are protected. 14 species of vascular plants assessed by the United Nations Environment Programme are considered at a risk of extinction: four are critically endangered, five are endangered, and five are vulnerable. Eight moss species are protected. Only 11 Macedonian species appear in the Bern Convention, whereas five are listed in European Union Habitats Directive appendices. Plant species that have become locally extinct in North Macedonia include Acorus calamus, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Lysimachia thyrsiflora, Aldrovanda vesiculosa, and Nymphaea alba. Others, such as Jacobaea paludosa, Ranunculus lingua, and Gentiana pneumonanthe, are near locally extinct if not extinct already. Carex elata is also on the brink of extinction. ==Fungi==

'', which is critically endangered in North Macedonia, has a significant population on the island of Golem Grad in Lake Prespa. So far, 122 species have been identified as threatened, Ten of the critically endangered species have been found in just a single location. ==Animals==

Invertebrates There are 13,493 recorded invertebrate species in North Macedonia. The vast majority of these (90%) are arthropods. Of the 1126 Chelicerata species present, One has been identified as endangered, with 15 being vulnerable and 24 being near threatened. There are perhaps 106 caddisfly species, although estimates vary. The 68 species of identified Neuropterida consist of 59 Neuroptera and nine Raphidioptera. The 13 known flea species include parasites of the Balkan snow vole. The country has 68 identified mayflies, including seven Rhithrogena species, all found in the Pena river. Known Dictyoptera include 12 cockroaches, four mantis, and two termites. Of the 14 lice species known, two, Enderleinellus ferrisi and Schizophthirus gliris, are parasites (of European ground squirrels and edible dormice respectively). Haploembia solieri, which was found in Valandovo, is the only recorded Embioptera species. Other insect species include 97 Plecoptera (10 of which are endemic), 64 Odonata, 49 Psocoptera, 42 Thysanoptera, five Dermaptera, three Archaeognatha, two Mecoptera, one Strepsiptera (Hylecthrus rubi), and one Zygentoma. There is no data for Megaloptera within the country. There are perhaps fewer than 100 spread across North Macedonia and Albania. Golden jackals were considered extinct in the area by the 1960s, but became re-established in forested mountainous areas, especially in the west, during the 21st century. An individual raccoon dog, a species which was introduced to European Russia in the 20th century, was found dead in the north of the country, indicating the species is spreading southwards. Herbivores include roe deer, chamois, wild boar, and European hares. European ground squirrels are found on Mount Mokra. The European wildcat, Balkan lynx, Eurasian otter, brown bear, European ground squirrel, and Balkan snow vole have strict protection under national legislation, and another 10 mammal species have lesser levels of protection. Three bats, two rodents, and one mustelid are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List. ==Algae==

Knowledge of algal species in North Macedonia remains patchy, with inconsistent research and several taxa that remain not fully identified. There are 2095 identified forms of algae, with the vast majority being diatoms. It is thought at least 10% of these are endemic, with at least 194 having been so far identified as such. Most research on algae has taken place in Lakes Ohrid and Prespa. Lake Ohrid by itself holds 798 identified taxa, with 158 being endemic to just that lake. ==Diversity and endemism hotspots==

and Lake Prespa are the two largest lakes in North Macedonia. Within North Macedonia, there are multiple areas that are likely high in endemism. Lake Ohrid is an extensively studied area, and its diversity is reflected in a high number of endemic species. Lake Prespa lies quite close to Lake Ohrid, and the two lakes are connected hydrologically. While Lake Prespa has fewer species than Lake Ohrid and while the two lakes share similar species compositions, Lake Prespa has its own endemic species and species more closely related to more western water bodies than to Lake Ohrid. Within Lake Ohrid alone there are over 100 insects, 75 flatworms (35 endemic to the lake and nearby waterbodies), 72 gastropods (56 endemic), 52 ostracods (33 endemic), 49 rotifers, 43 Acari, 36 oligochaetes (17 endemic), 36 copepods (six endemic), 31 Cladocera (one endemic), 30 endemic ciliates, 24 leeches (12 endemic), 24 nematodes (three endemic), 14 amoebas, 13 bivalves (two endemic), 10–11 Amphipoda (9 endemic), four isopods (3 endemic), four sponges, and two decapods. The Ancylus genus species in this lake are monophyletic, likely evolving within the lake itself. The same situation is true for leeches from the genus Dina. Lake Prespa is less well studied, but is known to have at over 100 insects, 90 crustaceans, 60 rotifers, 50 flatworms, 36 molluscs (27 of which are snails), 35 annelids, and three sponges. Seven of these snails are endemic, as is the mollusc Pisidium maasseni. Radix snail species in both Ohrid and Lake Prespas are related, and there are endemic species within springs near the Monastery of Saint Naum that are unrelated to the species found in the lakes. Lake Dojran has 17 rotifers. It is expected that mountainous areas will also contain a number of endemic species. North Macedonia contains many areas of ice age refugia, which retain significant plant diversity. Plant endemism and sub-endemism is high around mountainous areas. Mammal diversity is highest in the mountainous west of the country. Caves in the west, especially within the drainage basins of the Radika, Galichica, Jakupica, and Poreche rivers, are thought to have rates of invertebrate endemism of around 90%. 57 species of stygofauna are known, including 14 pseudoscorpions, 12 beetles, and 10 isopods. ==Human influence==

'' on a Macedonian stamp. There is significant interaction between the people of North Macedonia and wildlife, especially in rural areas. This continues despite rural areas decreasing in population by 2.2% from 2005 to 2010. Marshes are a habitat under considerable threat, not just from land use changes but from climate change, and lowland marshes may disappear completely from the country. As they are considered pests, the government pays a bounty of 700 denar per wolf killed. and while hunting them was banned in 1996, their population has not increased significantly since then. over 800 are considered to be endemic. Some species listed as endemic nonetheless have ranges which may stretch slightly outside North Macedonia's borders. For example, species found only in the three major lakes are considered endemic, despite the lakes being shared with neighbouring countries. (or Programme for Balkan Lynx Recovery) began in 2006. While the MoEPP is responsible for nature protecting and monitoring, natural resources, such as forests, waters, and game animals remain under the jurisdiction of other ministries. This overlap in jurisdiction has complicated ecosystem management, and the implementation of the European Union Acquis communautaire into Macedonian law. Different aspects of environmental monitoring are carried out by a number of different ministries. The Law on Protection of Ohrid, Prespa and Lake Dojrans provided specific protection for the three large lakes starting in 1977. The first National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was adopted in 2004, alongside the Law on Nature Protection. It and the subsequent Second National Environmental Action Plans direct the government's anti-pollution efforts. There are two classes of protected species under Macedonian law, "Strictly Protected" and "Protected". National protection measures exist for "Strictly Protected" species, but not yet for species identified as "Protected". Legislation has been enacted to control the trade of wildlife and wildlife parts. The Constitution treats game animals as common goods, which are given special protection. Current regulation is established under the 2012 Law on Hunting. 133 wild species are classified as game: 110 birds and 23 mammals. There are 112 hunting grounds for large game, and 144 for small game. These are all divided between 11 hunting management areas under the General Hunting Management Master Plan. The most hunted species include hares, partridges, pheasants, wild boar, and chamois. Previously unprotected, bears were classified as a game species in 1988, gaining hunting law protections in 1996. 762 wolves, 76 deer, 521 chamois, over 6000 wild boar, over 32,000 rabbits, 252 birds of prey, and 1500 waterfowl were recorded as having been shot between 2003 and 2012. A few hunted species have seen steep reductions in their population. Some deer populations have been reduced by up to 93%. The legal list of protected and strictly protected species has not kept up to date with taxonomy, for example by double-counting species which had previously been assigned multiple names. International conventions North Macedonia ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1997, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1997, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in 2002, and the Kyoto Protocol in 2004. North Macedonia is also a party to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, along with the specific Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats and Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds. Two areas totalling have been designated wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention: Lake Prespa in 1995 and Dorjan Lake in 2007. However, there is currently no national programme for wetlands conservation, despite obligations under the convention. Lake Ohrid was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the criteria for nature in 1979. Slatinski Izvor cave and the Markovi Kuli landscape were tentatively enrolled in 2004. ==References==