European badger

The source of the word "badger" is uncertain. The Oxford English Dictionary states that it probably derives from "badge" + -ard, in reference to the white mark on its forehead that resembles a badge. This etymology may date to the early 16th century. The French word ('digger') has also been suggested as a source. A male badger is a boar, a female is a sow, and a young badger is a cub. A badger's home is called a sett. Badger colonies are often called clans. The far older name "brock" (), () is a Celtic loanword (cf. Gaelic and Welsh , from Proto-Celtic ) meaning 'grey'. and from these words the common Romance terms for the animal evolved (Italian , French —now is more common—, Catalan , Spanish , Portuguese ) except Asturian . Until the mid-18th century, the European badger was known by various names in English, including brock, pate, grey, and bawson. The name "bawson" is derived from "bawsened", meaning striped with white. "Pate" is a local name that was once popular in northern England. The name "badget" was once common, but only used in Norfolk, while "earth dog" was used in southern Ireland. The badger is commonly referred to in Welsh as a ('earth pig'). ==Taxonomy==

Ursus meles was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the badger in his work Systema Naturae. Evolution The species probably evolved from the Chinese Meles thorali of the early Pleistocene. The modern species originated in the early Middle Pleistocene, as evidenced by fossil sites in Episcopia, Grombasek, Süssenborn, Hundsheim, Erpfingen, Koněprusy, Mosbach 2, and Stránská Skála. Comparisons between fossil and living specimens demonstrate a progressive adaptation to omnivory, particularly evident in the increased surface area of the molars and the modification of the carnassials. Badger bones are occasionally discovered in earlier strata due to the burrowing habits of the species. Subspecies In the 19th and 20th centuries, several badger type specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. , eight subspecies were recognized as valid taxa, but four (canescens, arcalus, rhodius, severzovi) are now considered to belong to a distinct species, the Caucasian badger (M. canescens). In 2009, a cranial study was conducted comparing the skulls of European badgers from different regions. The results of the study suggested that the European badgers could be divided into three subspecies: M. m. millerei (Baryshnikov et al., 2003) for the south-western Norwegian badgers, M. m. meles (Linnaeus, 1758) for the main Fennoscandian badgers and the name M. m. europaeus (Desmarest, 1816) was proposed for the non-Fennoscandian badgers. In 2016, the system of three Meles meles subspecies was appointed again, but the name for the non-Fennoscandian badgers was corrected to M. m. taxus (Boddaert, 1785). The new taxonomic system of Meles meles subspecies can be summarized as follows: ==Description==

European badgers are powerfully built animals with small heads, thick, short necks, stocky, wedge-shaped bodies and short tails. Their feet are either plantigrade or semi-digitigrade and short, with five toes on each foot. The claws are not retractable, and the hind claws wear with age. Old badgers sometimes have their hind claws almost completely worn away from constant use. Their snouts, which are used for digging and probing, are muscular and flexible. Their eyes are small, and their ears are short and tipped with white. Whiskers are present on the snout and above the eyes. Boars typically have broader heads, thicker necks and narrower tails than sows. Sows have sleeker bodies, narrower, less domed heads and fluffier tails. Badgers have longer guts than red foxes, reflecting their omnivorous diet. The small intestine has an average length of and lacks a cecum. Both sexes have three pairs of nipples, though these are more developed in females. European badgers cannot flex their backs like martens, polecats and wolverines, nor can they stand fully erect like honey badgers. However, they can move quickly at full gallop. in body length, in tail length, in hind foot length and in ear height. Males (or boars) exceed females (or sows) slightly in these measurements, but can weigh considerably more. Their weight varies seasonally, growing from spring to autumn and peaking just before winter. During the summer, European badgers commonly weigh and in autumn. The average weight of adults in the Białowieża Forest was in spring but up to in autumn, 46% higher than the spring low mass. In Woodchester Park, England, adults in spring weighed on average and in fall average . In Doñana National Park, average weight of adult badgers is reported as , perhaps in accordance with Bergmann's rule, that its size decreases in relatively warmer climates. Sows can attain a top autumn weight of around , while exceptionally large boars have been reported in autumn. The heaviest verified specimen was , though unverified reports have suggested weights of up to and even (if so, the heaviest weight for any terrestrial mustelid). If average weights are used, the European badger ranks as the second largest terrestrial mustelid, behind only the wolverine. The skulls of European badgers are quite massive and heavy, with an elongated shape. Their braincases are oval in shape, while the front part of their skulls is elongated and narrow. Adults have prominent sagittal crests which can reach 15 mm in height in older males, Aside from anchoring the jaw muscles, the thickness of the crests protect their skulls from physical impact. Similar to martens, the dentition of European badgers is well-suited for their omnivorous diets. Their incisors are small and chisel-shaped, their canine teeth are prominent and their carnassials are not overly specialised. Their molars are flattened and adapted for grinding. Their jaws are powerful enough to crush most bones, and a provoked badger was once bit down so heavily on a man's wrist that his hand had to be amputated. The dental formula is . Scent glands are present below the base of the tail and around the anus. The subcaudal gland produces a cream-coloured, musky-smelling fatty substance, while the anal glands secrete a stronger-smelling, yellowish-brown fluid. ==Distribution and habitat==

The European badger is native to most of Europe. It is found in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Crete, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine. They are common in European Russia, where 30,000 individuals were recorded in 1990. They are abundant and increasing throughout their range, partly due to a reduction in rabies in Central Europe. In the UK, the badger population increased by 77% during the 1980s and 1990s. The European badger inhabits deciduous and mixed woodlands, clearings, spinneys, pastureland and scrub, including Mediterranean maquis shrubland. It has adapted to living in suburban areas and urban parks, though not to the same extent as red foxes. In mountainous regions, it can be found at altitudes of up to . ==Behaviour and ecology==

Social and territorial behaviour European badgers are the most sociable of all badger species, It is mainly males that are involved in territorial aggression. A hierarchical social system is thought to exist among badgers and large powerful boars seem to assert dominance over smaller males. Large boars sometimes intrude into neighbouring territories during the main mating season in early spring. Sparring and more vicious fights generally result from territorial defence during the breeding season. However, animals within and outside a group generally show considerable tolerance towards each other. Boars tend to mark their territories more actively than sows, with their territorial activity increasing during the mating season in early spring. Badgers groom each other thoroughly using their claws and teeth. This grooming may have a social function. They are crepuscular and nocturnal by nature. and emit a piercing scream when alarmed or frightened. Denning behaviour Like other badger species, European badgers are burrowing animals. However, the dens they construct, known as 'setts', are the most complex and are passed on from generation to generation. The number of exits in one sett can range from a few to fifty. These setts can be vast and can sometimes accommodate multiple families. Insuch cases, each family occupies its own passages and nesting chambers. Some setts may have exits which are only used in times of danger or play. A typical passage has a wide base and a height. Three sleeping chambers occur in a family unit, some of which are open at both ends. The nesting chamber is located from the opening, and is situated more than a underground, in some cases . Generally, the passages are long. The nesting chamber is on average , and are high. Badgers collect and dig bedding throughout the year, particularly in spring and autumn. Sett maintenance is usually carried out by subordinate sows and dominant boars. The chambers are frequently lined with bedding, brought in on dry nights. This bedding consists of grass, bracken, straw, leaves and moss. Up to 30 bundles can be carried to the sett in a single night. European badgers are fastidiously clean animals that regularly clear out and discard old bedding. During the winter, they may take their bedding outside on sunny mornings and retrieve it later in the day. A sett is almost invariably located near a tree, which the badgers use for stretching or claw scraping. Badgers defecate in latrines located near the sett, as well as at strategic locations on territorial boundaries or near places with abundant food supplies. Reproduction and development The estrus cycle in European badgers lasts four to six days and can occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in spring. Sexual maturity in boars is usually attained at the age of twelve to fifteen months but this can range from nine months to two years. Males are normally fecund during January–May, with spermatogenesis declining in summer. Sows usually begin ovulating in their second year, though some exceptionally begin at nine months. They can mate at any time of the year, though the main peak occurs in February–May, when mature sows are in postpartal estrus and young animals experience their first estrus. Matings occurring outside this period typically occur in sows which either failed to mate earlier in the year or matured slowly. Mating lasts for fifteen to sixty minutes, though the pair may briefly copulate for a minute or two when the sow is not in estrus. A delay of two to nine months precedes the fertilized eggs implanting into the wall of the uterus, though matings in December can result in immediate implantation. Ordinarily, implantation happens in December, with a gestation period lasting seven weeks. Cubs are usually born in mid-January to mid-March within underground chambers containing bedding. In areas where the countryside is waterlogged, cubs may be born above ground in buildings. Typically, only dominant sows can breed, as they suppress the reproduction of subordinate females. Although many cubs are sired by resident males, up to 54% can be fathered by boars from different colonies. In areas such as England and Transcaucasia, where winters are less harsh, badgers either forgo winter sleep entirely or spend long periods underground, emerging in mild spells. They are highly adaptable and opportunistic omnivores whose diet encompasses a wide range of animals and plants. Their most important food source is earthworms, followed by large insects, carrion, cereals, fruit and small mammals, including rabbits, mice, rats, voles, shrews, moles and hedgehogs. Their insect prey includes chafers, dung and ground beetles, caterpillars, leatherjackets, and the nests of wasps and bumblebees. Badgers can destroy wasp nests, consuming the occupants, combs, and envelope, such as those of Vespula rufa, as their thick skin and pelt protect them from stings. Cereal food includes wheat, oats, maize and occasionally barley. Fruits taken include windfall apples, pears, plums, blackberries, bilberries, raspberries, cherries, They consume them by turning them inside out and eating the meat, leaving the inverted skin uneaten. Hedgehogs are eaten in a similar manner. Some rogue badgers may kill lambs, They may live alongside red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in isolated sections of large burrows. However, cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) are known predators of European badgers and attacks by them on badger cubs are not infrequent, including cases where they have been pulled out directly from below the legs of their mothers, and even adult badgers may be attacked by this eagle species when emerging weak and hungry from hibernation. Eurasian eagle owls (Bubo bubo) may also take an occasional cub and other large raptors such as white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) and greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga) are considered potential badger cub predators. Raccoon dogs may extensively use badger setts for shelter. There are many known cases of badgers and raccoon dogs wintering in the same hole, possibly because badgers enter hibernation two weeks earlier than the latter, and leave two weeks later. In exceptional cases, badger and raccoon dog cubs may coexist in the same burrow. Badgers may drive out or kill raccoon dogs if they overstay their welcome. Diseases and parasites Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB) caused by Mycobacterium bovis is a significant factor in badger mortality, although infected badgers can survive and breed successfully for years before succumbing to the disease. The disease was first observed in badgers in Switzerland in 1951 in Switzerland where they were believed to have contracted it from chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) or roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). It was detected in the United Kingdom in 1971 where it was linked to an outbreak of bovine TB in cows. Evidence suggests that badgers are the primary reservoir of infection for cattle in the southwest of England, Wales and Ireland. Since then there has been considerable controversy as to whether culling badgers will effectively reduce or eliminate bovine TB in cattle. Badgers are vulnerable to the mustelid herpesvirus-1, as well as rabies and canine distemper, though the latter two are absent in Great Britain. Other diseases found in European badgers include arteriosclerosis, pneumonia, pleurisy, nephritis, enteritis, polyarthritis and lymphosarcoma. Internal parasites of badgers include trematodes, nematodes and several species of tapeworm. ==Conservation==

The International Union for Conservation of Nature rates the European badger as being of least concern. This is because it is a relatively common species with a wide distribution, and its populations are generally stable. In Central Europe, badgers have become more abundant in recent decades due to a reduction in the incidence of rabies. In other areas it has also fared well, with increases in numbers in Western Europe including Great Britain. However, in some areas of intensive agriculture, it has declined due to loss of habitat, and in others it is hunted as a pest. ==Cultural significance==

's The Wind in the Willows in The Tale of Mr. Tod Badgers play a part in European folklore and are featured in modern literature. In Irish mythology, badgers are portrayed as shape-shifters and kinsmen to Tadg, the king of Tara and foster father of Cormac mac Airt. In one story, Tadg berates his adopted son for having killed and prepared some badgers for dinner. In German folklore, the badger is portrayed as a cautious, peace-loving Philistine, who loves more than anything his home, family and comfort, though he can become aggressive if surprised. He is a cousin of Reynard the Fox, whom he uselessly tries to convince to return to the path of righteousness. The "Frances" series of children's books by Russell and Lillian Hoban depicts an anthropomorphic badger family. In T. H. White's Arthurian series The Once and Future King, the young King Arthur is transformed into a badger by Merlin as part of his education. He meets with an elderly badger who tells him "I can only teach you two things – to dig, and love your home." A villainous badger named Tommy Brock appears in Beatrix Potter's 1912 book The Tale of Mr. Tod. He kidnaps the children of Benjamin Bunny and his wife Flopsy, and hides them in an oven at the home of Mr. Tod the fox, whom he fights at the end of the book. The portrayal of the badger as a filthy animal which appropriates fox dens was criticised from a naturalistic viewpoint. However, the inconsistencies are few and are used to create individual characters rather than to depict archetypical foxes and badgers. A wise old badger named Trufflehunter appears in C. S. Lewis' Prince Caspian, where he aids Caspian X in his struggle against King Miraz. A badger takes a prominent role in Colin Dann's The Animals of Farthing Wood series as second in command to Fox. The badger is also the house symbol for Hufflepuff in the Harry Potter book series. The Redwall series also features the Badger Lords, who rule the extinct volcano fortress of Salamandastron and are renowned as fierce warriors. The children's television series Bodger & Badger was popular on CBBC during the 1990s and was set around the mishaps of a mashed potato-loving badger and his human companion. The satirical theatre in Zagreb founded in 1964 by Fadil Hadžić was named "Jazavac" after the badger's reputation for cunning as well as Petar Kočić's 1904 satirical play (). In the play, an unnamed badger is sued by a local farmer for eating his crops. The play by the Bosnian Serb writer is highly critical towards Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the beginning of the 20th century. In honour of Kočić and his badger, the satirical theatre in Banja Luka founded in 2006 is named . Heraldry European badger appears on the coat of arms of the municipality of Luhanka in Central Finland, referring to the former importance of the fur trade in the locality. The badger is also the title animal of the Nurmijärvi municipality in Uusimaa, Finland, where it is a very common mammal. Hunting European badgers are of little significance to the hunting economy, although they may be hunted locally. Methods used to hunt badgers include setting jaw traps, ambushing them at their setts with guns, smoking them out of their burrows, and using specially bred dogs such as Fox Terriers and Dachshunds to dig them out. However, badgers are notoriously durable animals. Their thick, loose skin is covered in long hair for protection, and their heavily ossified skulls allow them to shrug off most blunt traumas and shotgun pellets. Badger-baiting Badger-baiting was once a popular blood sport, in which badgers were captured alive, placed in boxes, and attacked with dogs. In the UK, this was outlawed by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 and again by the Protection of Animals Act 1911. Moreover, the cruelty towards badgers and the killing of badgers constitute offences under the Protection of Badgers Act 1992 (c. 51). Further offences under this Act are inevitably committed to facilitate badger-baiting, such as interfering with a sett or taking or possessing a badger for purposes other than nursing an injured animal back to health. If convicted, badger baiting offenders may face a prison sentence of up to six months, a fine of up to £5,000, and other punitive measures, such as community service or a ban on owning dogs. Culling Many badgers in Europe were gassed during the 1960s and 1970s to control rabies. Until the 1980s, badger culling in the United Kingdom was carried out by gassing to control the spread of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). Limited culling resumed in 1998 as part of a 10-year randomized trial cull which was considered by John Krebs and others to show that culling was ineffective. Some groups called for a selective cull, while others favoured a programme of vaccination. Some vets support the cull on compassionate grounds, as they say that the illness causes badgers much suffering. led by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), however, this was later deferred with a wide range of reasons given. In August 2013, a full culling programme began, during which around 5,000 badgers were killed over a period of six weeks in West Somerset and Gloucestershire. Marksmen used high-velocity rifles for the cull, employing a combination of controlled shooting and free shooting techniques (some badgers were first trapped in cages). The cull sparked widespread protests, with people citing emotional, economic and scientific reasons against it. Although the badger is not an endangered species, it is considered an iconic symbol of the British countryside. It was claimed by shadow ministers that "The government's own figures show it will cost more than it saves...", and Lord Krebs, who led the Randomised Badger Culling Trial in the 1990s, said the two pilots "will not yield any useful information". A scientific study of culling from 2013 to 2017 has shown a reduction of 36–55% incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle. Uses using badger hair Badger meat is eaten in some districts of the former Soviet Union, though in most cases it is discarded. The hair of the European badger has been used for centuries for making sporrans and shaving brushes. Sporrans are traditionally worn as part of male Scottish highland dress. They form a bag or pocket made from a pelt and a badger or other animal's mask may be used as a flap. The pelt was also formerly used for pistol furniture. ==References==