Folklore, legends and myths in Dombey and Son

Charles Dickens is often noted for maintaining close connections with the people of his early life, frequently visiting the streets of London and Chatham, where he became acquainted with local peddlers. A prominent example of this is his friendship with the ballad seller Silas Wegg. Dickens collaborated with a small theatre troupe, primarily composed of family members and a few close friends, to stage pantomimes and playlets featuring travelling actors or clowns. Legend of Dick Whittington In his correspondence, Dickens highlighted that the relationships among the main characters and the accompanying imagery in his works are influenced by the legend of Dick Whittington, a tale that had been popularized in modern theatre. The characters of Susan Nipper and Walter Gay in Dombey and Son are inspired by contemporary plays: Black-Eyed Susan from 1829 by Douglas Jerrold, and Dick Whittington and His Cat by Albert Smith respectively. The legend of Dick Whittington, who became Lord Mayor of London, dates back to the 17th century and was particularly prominent when Dickens was developing his novel. Smith introduces original characters into the legend, including a fierce cook reminiscent of Susan Nipper and an ambitious hypocrite similar to Carker, who gains the trust of his employer, Mr Fitzwarren, to further his schemes. Walter Gay serves as a "counterpoint to Dick Whittington". Although direct references to the legend are infrequent, they are strategically woven into his narrative. Like Whittington, Walter is an orphan navigating the business world with optimism, yet he encounters persecution and conspiracy. Jolly Jack Tar Stereotype Jack Tar (also spelled Jacktar, Jack-tar, or simply Tar) originally referred to sailors in the Merchant Navy or the Royal Navy, particularly during the height of the British Empire's expansion, and later came to identify all seafaring people. The term is often associated with the sea shanty "Jolly Jack Tar", which portrays a confident young sailor who overcomes significant challenges, marries the admiral's daughter, and concludes his story with a patriotic finale. Walter Gay's ballad takes the form of a dramatic duet between William, a generous and loyal foresail sailor, and Susan, the innocent young woman he must leave behind as duty calls. This narrative employs several traditional genre clichés, such as the contrast between steadfast love and the unpredictable sea, the union of the delicate young lady and the gruff sailor, and the notion that love ultimately triumphs over adversity. In contrast, Douglas Jerrold's melodrama emphasizes the bride's humble domestic life and the unjust hardships endured by the sailor. == Theatrical Cliché Reformulated into Myth ==

in Bath. In Dombey and Son, Charles Dickens examines the contrasts between sea and land, sailors and landlubbers, and humanity and materialism. In the early chapters, the Dombey house, anchored to the ground yet commercially dependent on maritime trade, stands in stark opposition to Solomon Gills's shop, which, while entirely oriented toward the sea, is situated within a bustling market environment. Metaphorically, the Dombey house appears to be a conqueror, looking confidently toward the future, yet it is ultimately destined for failure. In contrast, Gills's shop, though fragile and seemingly obsolete, serves as a resilient vessel of the human spirit, navigating the challenges of commercial life. Materialistic values are portrayed as vulnerable to the whims of fortune and change, tethered to the City and fashionable locales such as the spa town of Leamington, the seaside resort of Brighton, the resort of Bath, or the dangerous Paris. Conversely, human solidarity is associated with those guided by the navigation instruments of life toward prudence, humility, and altruism, or with those who, cast upon the reefs of adversity, find refuge in what may seem a barren desert but is, in fact, an oasis of kindness and salvation. Characters like Solomon Gills, Captain Cuttle, Florence, Walter, Susan, Toots, and even Mr Dombey ultimately discover their way to an "island of compassion." Thus, the sea serves as a constant backdrop in the novel, rich with symbolic connotations. John Hillis-Miller observes that “the sea of death [...] is the authentic symbol of a nonhuman power whose chief characteristics are reconciliation and continuity”, suggesting that it represents a realm beyond earthly existence where the reciprocity of love becomes possible. The death of the first Mrs Dombey is metaphorically described as a shipwreck, with the dying woman finding hope in "the light she clings to", representing her love for her daughter, Florence. Similarly, Mr Dombey perceives the passing of Little Paul, who dies at the age of nine, as the loss of his ship, "The Heir Son", foreshadowing the family's impending financial ruin. For other characters, Little Paul's death symbolizes a journey to the afterlife on a sea of love, a language that he understood and shared only with the eccentric old man from Brighton Beach. Florence, during her honeymoon, also interprets the waves as conveying a similar message, while Solomon Gills reflects, "Some of our lost ships [of his nautical instruments], freighted with gold, have come home, truly.” Throughout the novel, nearly all characters embark on a metaphorical voyage on the waves before returning to shore, establishing a clear contrast: the materialists—such as Dombey, Carker, Alice Marwood, and Edith Granger—inevitably face disaster, humiliation, or death. In contrast, humanists, firmly grounded, achieve relative prosperity and happiness through their alignment with authentic moral forces. Dickens skilfully weaves elements of nautical legend and popular melodrama into his narrative. While Albert Smith and Douglas Jerrold sought to create burlesque parodies, Dickens transforms these influences into a parable rich in symbolism and mythical significance without altering the core action. == Fairy Tales and Myths ==

John Forster described Dombey and Son as a "fanciful rendering of reality", using "fanciful" to imply an imaginative quality. Some critics refer to Dickens's novels as realistic fairy tales. Fairy Tales , 1897. Dickens draws extensively from popular culture, including tales, ballads, and songs. In "The Christmas Tree", an autobiographical narrative that Simon Callow finds "almost Proustian", Dickens writes, "Little Red Riding Hood was my first love. I feel that, if I could have married her, I would have known perfect happiness." This admission intrigues Bruno Bettelheim, who, in The Uses of Enchantment, comments: "Even when world-famous, Dickens acknowledged the deep formative impact that the wondrous figures and events of fairy tales had had on him and his creative genius [...] Dickens understood that the imagery of fairy tales helps children better than anything else in [...] achieving a more mature consciousness to civilize the chaotic pressures of their unconscious." , Scenes from the story of Saint Etienne, detail, 15th century. Florence Dombey is often likened to Cinderella, living under her father's strict authority. Bruno Bettelheim notes that the final part of the novel makes subtle references to the iconic slipper from the fairy tale, particularly in the description of their wedding morning in Chapter 57. As Florence and Walter walk to the church, they choose "the quietest streets", and the narrator captures their happiness by stating, "Not even during their ancient childish stroll were they farther from the surrounding world. The feet of the children of yesteryear did not tread on the ground as wonderful as the one they tread on today." Her demeanour, always clad in black, lends her a theriomorphic quality, complemented by a "croaking" voice reminiscent of a toad and serpent-like piercing eyes. These vivid portrayals underscore the novel's deep connections to fairy tale motifs. Mr Dombey's mansion can be seen as a setting for an ever-awake Sleeping Beauty, caught in a state of temporal stasis without hope of rescue from a Prince Charming. The narrator describes the place using litotes to deny any miraculous connection, subtly alluding to it as: "[...] No magical abode from a wonderful story" or "There were not the two dragons as sentinels [...] as often in legends, stationed there to watch over the imprisoned innocence." Anne Chassagnol characterizes him as a malformed being, experiencing mental disabilities and the effects of serious illnesses, reflecting the Victorian imagination's tendency to see him as a victim of a malevolent fairy. Archetypes and Myths File:NAMA Sphinx archaïque.jpg|Archaic funerary sphinx, circa 570 BCE, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg|Painted bas-relief of imperial dragons in Beijing. File:Affresco romano - Pompei - Argo.JPG|The Pompeii Argus. File:Libr0328.jpg|Cyclops, illustration from 1680. File:The Pilgrim's Progress by Byam Shaw05.jpg|The Pilgrim's Progress, by Byam Shaw. Lucien Pothet explains that "The continuity of myth-legend-epic-modern literature has been highlighted many times [...] Let us simply recall that mythical archetypes served in a certain way in the great modern novels. The trials that a character in a novel must overcome have their model in the adventures of the mythical Hero. Secularized, degraded, camouflaged, these myths and mythic images are found everywhere: one only needs to recognize them." Dombey and Son contains numerous allusions to archetypes and myths, although they are often subtly reshaped by Dickens’ imagination before being woven into the fabric of the novel. As a result, most of the key characters are symbiotically associated with elemental and cosmic forces. A notable example is Little Paul, who converses with the waves and understands their language, suggesting a deep connection to nature. Florence, too, embodies water, as Julian Moynahan observes, particularly through "the abundance of her tears." In the chapter describing Mr Dombey's transformation, it is revealed that "at last, [he] gauges the importance of the liquid element, the sea, the river, and the tears, and this awareness amounts to an unconditional surrender." Conversely, characters in the novel often take on animalistic qualities, elevating the narrative's bestiary beyond mere comic irony, as analyzed by Michael G. Gilmour. This transformation borrows from ancient mythology and biblical references. For instance, Blimber is portrayed as an indecipherable sphinx, embodying the unyielding nature of stone. Carter adeptly shifts between the personas of a velvet-pawed cat and more ferocious creatures like a wolf or shark. Good Mrs Brown is likened to a crab, while Major Bagstock possesses "lobster eyes." Mr Perch, named after a voracious fish, ironically finds himself "hooked", whereas Mr Toots remains a "chick of the coop." Florence, imprisoned and wounded, is likened to a bird in a cage with broken wings, her innocence reminiscent of a turtledove. Her father takes on the role of a bird of prey, while her guardians have the air of wild beasts. Even the railway, likened to a dragon, symbolizes the archetypal obstacle that the hero must overcome, morphing into a theriomorphic symbol spewing fire, belching black vapours, and sporting glowing red eyes in the darkness. Dombey and Son incorporates allusions to figures like Argus and the Cyclops. symbolizes the role of the spy, mirroring Carker's ability to paralyze Commander Cuttle from a distance and Mr Dombey's furtive observations. Central to the narrative is the myth of trial and rebirth, exemplified through Walter's nautical tribulations, which echo the terrestrial challenges faced by John Bunyan's Pilgrim in ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' (1678). Mr Dombey's moral journey reflects a similar arc; as a victim of pride, he endures the loss of his son, a loveless marriage, bankruptcy, and a year-long illness. This suffering ultimately leads to his rebirth as a more self-aware individual, recognizing his past negligence. Additionally, the spiritual autobiographies of the nineteenth century, like William Hale White's The Autobiography of Mark Rutherford and Mark Rutherford’s Deliverance, further explore the concept of inner pilgrimage, reflecting a similar journey of self-discovery and redemption. == See also ==

Notes References == Appendices ==

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