Equine ethics

is one of the personalities involved in promoting more ethical relations with horses. According to the definition provided by the Swiss National Stud Farm, equine ethics involves critically examining human behavior toward horses to "decide in good conscience what is right and what is wrong, and to act accordingly". This field emphasizes treating horses with respect for their dignity and well-being while also fulfilling the expectations of their utility for humans. The responsibility for ethical treatment primarily falls on individuals who interact closely with horses, including jockeys, owners, breeders, grooms, and therapists. It also encompasses considerations regarding breeding practices, such as the selection of hypertypes. For a practice to be deemed ethical, it must respect the dignity of the horse. According to Jean-Baptiste Jeangène Vilmer, horses are recognized by the scientific community as capable of suffering, often serving as a prominent example in discussions of animal welfare. Geneticist and ethicist Axel Kahn highlights that "a horse's stress is similar to ours", emphasizing their capacity to experience well-being and distress. Horses have always enjoyed a special status among domestic animals, as their use is generally other than for food. However, their living conditions, often characterized by confinement in stalls and social isolation, starkly contrast with their natural habitats. This discrepancy raises important ethical considerations regarding their treatment and welfare. == Examples of balancing interests ==

Evaluating the various interests involved in ethical reflection allows for a comprehensive analysis of the treatment of horses. For instance, branding, used for horse identification, has been increasingly criticized and is now justified primarily for advertising and marketing purposes, particularly since the advent of microchip implants. As a result, branding has been banned in Germany. The shaving of a horse's whiskers is also considered unethical, since it is justified solely by aesthetic considerations, and causes the horse suffering due to the loss of sensory organs. == Multiple points of view ==

Defining acceptable and unacceptable practices regarding horse treatment often encounters cultural biases. Different societies and individuals have varying relationships with horses based on their historical and cultural contexts, leading to divergent views on specific practices. The rural exodus and the globalization of equestrian and equine sports pose the problem of finding a consensus. A large number of equestrian practices are deemed unethical, including the use of a harsh bit, the riding crop, training methods such as rollkur and poling, the use of electric shocks, and the domination of the horse by force. == History ==

Before the establishment of formal animal ethics, certain uses of horses were condemned by religious morality. In the 2nd century, the early Christian theologian Tertullian criticized the "demonic" use of horses in circus games, labeling it a sin for Christians. Historically, both Christianity and Western philosophy positioned horses primarily as servants to humanity. Éric Baratay notes that 18th-century clerics believed that horses were created to carry humans, dogs to provide companionship, and trees to offer shade. The horse has a positive connotation, but Catholic religious morality condemns the act of giving it a burial, an act considered pagan. In India, dharma acts as a kind of code of ethics, promoting non-violent behavior towards animals. Siddhartha Gautama forbade his followers to see an animal slaughtered and to consume the two "royal animals", the elephant and the horse. Moralistic notions of the right way to treat animals do not take into account the pain they may feel. Whether religious or social, this conception persisted until the 1970s. == Philosophers' opinions since the Renaissance ==

Michel de Montaigne expressed skepticism regarding humanity's claimed "rational" superiority over animals. In contrast, René Descartes formulated the concept of the "animal machine", positing that animals lack reason and speech, thereby categorizing them as mechanistic beings. Immanuel Kant considers that "animals are not conscious of themselves, and are therefore only means to an end [man]". Baruch Spinoza, on the other hand, recognizes that animals possess "a mind" and express certain feelings: Similarly, in opposition to Cartesian thought, Jean Meslier writes: Michel Onfray analyzes it as one of the first known anti-speciesist texts. Similarly, for Meslier, an open atheist, man, and horse are made of the same stuff: "what the horse is, man is too; what he has been and what he will be after his death too". == 19th century ==

The utilitarian doctrine of the 19th century significantly challenged the ethical status of horses, prompting a notable shift in Western philosophical thought. Jeremy Bentham asserted that horses possess reasoning abilities that surpass those of human infants and emphasized their capacity for suffering. He stated: Alberto Bondolfi highlights the importance of Bentham's argument, as it marks the first time pain is used as the ethical criterion for judging the treatment of animals. At the time, consideration for the service rendered "by an old dog or an old horse" was considered a "human duty". Éric Baratay notes that from the latter half of the 19th century, many farmers began to keep their old workhorses "retired" until natural death, opting against slaughter. This shift in practice reflected a growing sentiment against hippophagy, not for religious reasons, but rather because people "couldn't imagine eating their fellow workers". == Development of animal ethics ==

Animal ethics, as a philosophical discipline, emerged primarily in English-speaking countries during the 1970s, notably with the publication of Peter Singer's Animal Liberation. This development coincided with significant changes in the societal role of horses in Western culture. Historically viewed as agricultural livestock and symbols of military virility, horses have increasingly gained recognition in urban and female circles, evolving into companions regarded as pets deserving of emotional connection. The Swiss National Stud states: A growing number of riders claim to love their horses, but anthropomorphism is common. According to Baratay, the horse has become the animal "that's not in the house", a symbol of nature and an ambassador for the younger generation. Émilie De Cooker notes "a recent evolution in morals towards greater concern for the welfare of horses", which leads to these reflections on equestrian ethics. She believes we need to "formalize these new sensitivities". This evolution raises critical questions regarding the use of reins and the management of horses' end-of-life scenarios. Animal ethics came late to the French debate. The humanist heritage has led to a strong anthropocentrism, with the conviction that animals and the environment are at the service of human beings. French-speaking veterinarians and academics have taken an increasing interest in this debate since the beginning of the 21st century. In 2011, the Swiss National Stud considered that equestrian ethics has taken "an important place". == Actions in favor of equestrian ethics ==

The notion that ethical considerations alone drive progress in horse welfare is often overstated. In 2009, the French Equestrian Federation published the "''Charte d'éthique des équipes de France d'équitation''", stipulating that "riders must respect and care for their horses". Axel Kahn, former president of Paris-Descartes University, is involved in this debate, notably through the creation of a university diploma incorporating these notions, effective since January 2016. In 2015, veterinarian Vincent Boureau founded the "Equi-Ethic" think tank to promote ethical considerations in equestrian practices. In Switzerland, the (FSSE) began examining ethical issues in equestrian sports in 2008. A multidisciplinary dialogue involving breeders, equine owners, and leisure riders was initiated in 2009, culminating in a recognition of the need for improved information, communication, and knowledge transfer. This legal framework critiques actions that cause pain, suffering, or anxiety to horses, and prohibits practices that degrade the animal or treat it as a mere object. As a result, Switzerland implemented bans on practices such as shaving whiskers, hyperflexion (rollkur), martingales in show jumping competitions, and poling between 2014 and 2015. However, the Galahad Association believes that Quebec regulations lag far behind those in Switzerland. Similarly, '''' magazine has pointed out that France lags behind Switzerland in terms of equine protection. In 2010, Australian researchers Bidda Jones and Paul D. McGreevy published an article committed to "ethical horsemanship", pointing out that "laws are unlikely to adequately protect horse welfare if they regard traditional practices, including the use of riding crops to speed up horses, as 'reasonable' and 'acceptable' without considering their effect". == Ethical controversies ==

The concept of equestrian ethics is largely rooted in Western philosophical frameworks, which can lead to conflicts with differing cultural perceptions of animals. For example, in the 2010s, countries such as Switzerland, Belgium, and France criticized the practices of Gulf Arab nations in the equestrian discipline of endurance racing, citing the high number of horse fatalities during and after competitions. Yves Riou noted that these incidents reflect a shift in the status of horses in the Middle East, where they have increasingly been viewed as replaceable commodities. A notable ethical controversy arose in 2015 when a young Swedish rider made headlines for euthanizing her mare, which was suffering from an incurable knee condition, and consuming the animal's meat for several months. She publicly defended her decision on social media, arguing that it would be illogical to waste 154 kg of meat when it could be consumed rather than purchased from a store. Her actions sparked significant backlash online, with critics accusing her of barbarity and likening her decision to eating a dog or a family member. In response to the outrage, she reiterated her belief that it was "fair" to eat an animal that had lived a good life, emphasizing her perspective on the ethics of using the animal's remains. == Legal aspects ==

The treatment of horses can vary significantly in terms of legal and ethical standards, influenced by cultural practices and societal norms. While some behaviors towards horses are legally condemned, others may not be, highlighting the complexity of equine ethics across different contexts. Training courses that take into account the notion of ethics vis-à-vis the horse within the framework of the law are beginning to appear in response to societal demand. At the end of 2015, Paris-Descartes University, in partnership with the stud farm, created a university diploma titled "Ethics, Welfare and the Law of the Horse". In 2020, France experienced a troubling series of horse and donkey mutilations, which further underscored the need for enhanced awareness and regulation surrounding animal welfare practices. == Legal status of the horse ==

Property In many jurisdictions, domestic horses are classified as movable property, meaning they are owned by individuals and can be relocated as desired. This legal framework grants owners significant rights regarding their horses, including the right to euthanize them, provided the actions comply with the law. For example, an employee of an equine slaughterhouse in New Mexico, angered by threats from conservation groups, published a video in which he shot his horse with a pistol, and was not convicted. In certain countries, such as France and Switzerland, horse owners can opt to exclude their horses from slaughter for human consumption. However, this choice is frequently contested by the horse meat industry. The ethical debate surrounding the treatment of horses has sparked calls for a reevaluation of their legal status. Critics argue that classifying horses as movable property diminishes their status as sentient beings. Since the 2000s, both Germany and Austria have amended civil law to clarify that animals, including horses, are neither "things" nor mere objects. In France, horses are still recognized as property, but the Civil Code, the , and the Penal Code have recognized their sentient nature since 2015. The existence of a legal status for horses enables legal protection, not least because it provides a framework for procedures in the event of abuse or theft. Horses that have no legal status because they belong to no one, such as Australia's Brumbies, are not protected in any way and can be legally slaughtered or poisoned by anyone. This aspect motivated the creation of a legal status for American Mustangs, which is illegal to mistreat or kill under the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971. Livestock or pet? Traditionally viewed and utilized solely as livestock, horses now occupy a complex position between livestock and pets, particularly in regions such as France, Quebec, Quebec, which would abolish the horse-breeding industry. According to an IFOP poll in March 2013, 64% of French people support this change in the horse's legal status. In Switzerland, horse owners have a choice of legal status for their animals, depending on their activity. A horse intended for food production is a livestock animal, while a leisure horse that is not intended for slaughter is a pet excluded for life from the food chain, the choice being final. The generalization of pet status for all horses would have consequences for the animal's possible uses. Under European Union law, a pet animal may not be "trained in a way that is detrimental to its health or well-being, in particular by forcing it to exceed its natural abilities or strength, or by using artificial means". This would open up a legal avenue to prohibit the use of devices such as riding crops, spurs, and bits. Doping The doping of horses in competitive sports has been documented since ancient times and is considered "one of the most worrying excesses of the sporting spectacle". The financial stakes and potential rewards associated with winning can lead to neglect of ethical considerations and the welfare of the animal involved. Doping practices are widely condemned as contrary to the principles of sport, which hold that only healthy horses should compete. The way in which doping is detected varies from one country to another. In equestrian sport, doping control is based on a well-established organization. The lack of resources limits controls, but they do have a positive influence on amateur riders tempted to self-medicate their horses. For Jean-Baptiste Jeangène Vilmer, doping a horse should be re-qualified as poisoning, to emphasize the animal's non-consent, unlike doping human athletes. Zoophilia while another masturbates; outside the Lakshmana Hindu temple in Khajurâho Zoophilia with horses has always existed since they are one of the "animals to which people have access". This practice is often "swept under the carpet". Experts generally acknowledge the animal's non-consent and suffering. In the 1990s, Usenet users who identified themselves as "zoophiles" grouped together in the alt.sex.bestiality newsgroup, recounting their sexual acts with, among others, horses. The revelation of this figure led to a bad buzz against the Swiss. Convictions following sexual practices with horses exist in several countries, including Italy, France, Germany and the USA. Not all legislations condemn these sexual acts with an animal, as witnessed in 2005 by the case of Kenneth Pinyan, who died after being sodomized by a stallion in Washington State. The person who had offered him this service was not convicted of zoophilia, as the practice was not penalized in the state at the time. In France, in the same year, a man was convicted of having sexual relations with his pony. As copyright is designed to protect an intentionally created "work of the mind", animals cannot theoretically benefit from it, at least until the intentionality of the act of creation can be established. Alexandre Zollinger has suggested an "interest in kind" for "animal creations" materialized by a contract managed by a collecting society, with the aim of improving the well-being of the animal and its fellow creatures. This type of contract could be applied to horses used in circuses or those involved in filming films and series. == Philosophical aspects ==

The relationship between humans and horses presents numerous philosophical questions. Some radical proponents of "animal liberation" argue that animals should never be considered property, contending that ownership inherently denies them intrinsic value. In contrast, many horse owners who utilize their animals for work, sport, or leisure acknowledge their intrinsic worth. Equestrian sports often face significant ethical scrutiny, particularly concerning the issues prevalent in high-level competitions. However, the "ordinary, banal, less visible practices" of "Sunday riders" are, according to ethicist Émilie De Cooker, "just as problematic", as are those in riding schools, where horses become "jaded" by being ridden by beginners and repeating the same exercises every day. Competitions for beginner riders frequently feature "tense, poorly muscled horses" alongside riders who, in their attempts to address issues, may resort to inappropriate or even violent methods. While leisure horses often experience pain more frequently than those competing at elite levels, this suffering tends to be less visible and less reported in public discourse. Objectification reflects the objectification of the horse as a marketing medium (here, the Zangersheide brand) Certain legal practices degrade the horse to the status of a "product" or marketing medium, and are referred to as objectification or commodification. For Émilie De Cooker, the sport horse is considered an object. These practices have been compared to the slave trade by the animal liberation movement, particularly with regard to branding. While the widespread adoption of microchip implants has rendered traditional branding largely obsolete, it persists primarily as a custom and a means of promoting specific breeds or bloodlines. The horse has uniquely become a living medium for sponsorship; for example, Swedish rider Malin Baryard-Johnsson named one of her mounts H&M Tornesch. The stallion Vleut has been renamed Guccio by his rider Edwina Tops-Alexander, to reinforce her partnership with the luxury brand Gucci. Such practices can lead to legal disputes regarding trademark law, exemplified by a 2013 case involving the horse Jappeloup, which saw its name registered as a trademark, resulting in conflicts over its usage by various individuals and companies. Amélie Tsaag Valren highlights that the vocabulary used by breeders and cloning practices reflect a significant "desacralization" of the horse. On many farms, the term "product of the year" refers to a foal born that year. This concept is grounded in the perspective of the human responsible for the horse's treatment, specifically whether they regard the animal as an object rather than a sentient being. This phenomenon is evident not only in competitive equestrian sports but also in leisure riding, where horses are often treated as tools by inexperienced riders. Such riders may resort to harsh measures when their mounts fail to comply, frequently due to their own mistakes rather than the horse's behavior. for example in the scoring criteria for dressage competitions. According to psychoanalyst Ghilaine Jeannot-Pages, "the entire sporting vocabulary serves this lure", whereas the psychology of a herbivorous herd animal would lead it to flee constraints and useless efforts. Further questions about instrumentalization arise in the context of horse castration versus the keeping of stallions. Castration poses risks to the horse's physical integrity and can lead to veterinary complications; however, it is often justified as a means to ease management and reduce behavioral challenges associated with maintaining stallions. While Muslim countries typically oppose animal castration on ethical grounds, the practice is sometimes questioned in Western contexts as well. The management of stallions presents its own set of challenges, including issues of competence and potential legal complications. Additionally, an uncastrated male horse deprived of reproductive opportunities may experience sexual frustration. A careful assessment of the pros and cons is essential for making an informed ethical decision regarding castration. Some horses are subject to "excessive care" such as clipping feathering, clipping ear hair, neck and mane, and frequent shampooing. Eugenics and selective breeding The world of equestrian sport is by its very nature eugenicist, as it focuses solely on performance. The least adapted animals are excluded from reproduction and retired, including by sale to the slaughterhouse. Albert Jacquard notes that horse breeding is traditionally described as "improving the horse breed". However, this term can be misleading, as it suggests a definitive process of enhancement. The vast array of qualities in horses makes it difficult to establish a clear hierarchy of traits; determining which characteristics are most valuable requires subjective judgment. In practice, breeding tends to focus on enhancing specific traits that are deemed beneficial for human purposes, such as speed and jumping ability. Similarly, the use of artificial insemination in breeding can lead to a reduction in the genetic diversity of horses through the use of the same stallions, which is unethical. == Position statements ==

The debate surrounding equine welfare has attracted the attention of various researchers, philosophers, veterinarians, associations, and interest groups. Ethicist Axel Kahn emphasizes the importance of respecting nature and considering the well-being of horses. She advises taking inspiration from Nuno Oliveira's equestrian philosophy, which rejects arrogance and domination, and encouraging the education of riders towards "a form of wisdom and humility". For Dr. Bernard Denis, veterinarian and president of the Society of Ethnozoology, "Removing horses from the real or potential suffering associated with their sometimes abusive or disrespectful use, and improving equine welfare from now on, remains a priority". He envisages the creation of a breeding and possession permit to achieve this goal. In contrast, ethnologist Jean-Pierre Digard takes a speciesist stance, arguing that treating horses as "babies" is more detrimental than practices like bullfighting. He critiques the concept of keeping "garden horses", or unused animals, suggesting that this approach could lead to extinction or a decline in horse breeds. Digard contends that the desire to protect horses can lead to an extremist, anti-humanist perspective. The Swiss National Stud Farm maintains that the principles of horse domestication and use are ethically acceptable, arguing that while there are constraints on the animal—such as restricted movement and obedience to humans—horses also benefit from domestication through care, feeding, and protection from predators. Opinions of the antispeciesist movements The vegan and animal liberation movements advocate an end to animal exploitation and believe a horse should never be "yoked to a human being". Considered "radical currents of animal ethics", they call for an end to the use of animals for sport, and a halt to all domestication processes, whether in meat or pet farming. According to this ideology, owning a domesticated horse and "using" it is tantamount to depriving it of "its own animal existence" and would therefore be ethically reprehensible. Several representatives of the vegan movement have expressed their rejection of horse riding, arguing that horses don't need to be ridden and that horse-riding exists solely for the entertainment of human beings: they advise interacting with the animal solely on foot. On the other hand, animal protection associations that promote veganism, such as L214 and PETA, which claim three million members, are naturally opposed to the slaughter and consumption of horses. PETA has, however, taken a stand in favor of the return of equine slaughter in the United States, due to the increased suffering of unwanted horses exported to Canada and Mexico. Within the debate on speciesism and as a "useful" domestic animal, the horse, like the dog and cat, enjoys a privileged status compared to other animals. Many philosophers and writers, such as Goethe, have ranked horses among the most valuable animals, right after human beings. Many people believe that we should be indebted: "it would be horrible to kill racehorses because they had previously served us loyally, just as it would be abject to abandon one's faithful dog". The animal liberation movement "demands equal consideration of the interests of all beings with interests, independently of any idea of contract or reciprocity". Speciesism is prevalent even within the equidae family: the horse is the object of a great deal of attention, while the donkey and its hybrids are considered poor animals, and do not give rise to any ethical debate. On slaughtering and hippophagy , hypertyped for meat production. Most animal protection associations and shelters for retired or mistreated horses speak out against slaughter and hippophagy. The Society for the Protection of Animals (SPA by its acronym in French) has called on French supermarkets and hypermarkets to remove horse meat from their shelves because of "the brutality of transport and the state in which horses arrive at the slaughterhouse". The Fondation Brigitte-Bardot, the 30 Millions d'amis Foundation, and the association éthique du cheval in Lille The Quebec association Galahad "believes that horses should not be slaughtered for their meat, but that at the end of their lives, they should be euthanized under the supervision of a veterinarian". She adds that, at the very least, measures should be taken to ensure that slaughter takes place without suffering. The Swiss National Stud Farm's study concludes that slaughter with a captive bolt pistol is a "good death", as long as it is carried out correctly. However, the related actions can cause distress, such as during "loading, transport, unloading, smells, noise, sometimes waiting at the slaughterhouse, a narrow corridor and a stunning box unsuited to equids", as well as by "misses on the fatal blow", as Temple Grandin pointed out. From an antispeciesist point of view, the fight against hippophagy alone is an aberration: it should be extended to the fight against all meat consumption. Commenting on the Brigitte Bardot Foundation's shock campaigns, David Olivier points out that "it may save a few horses, but how many more chickens will be killed?". Through the voice of its president, the French equine veterinary association came out in favor of the slaughter of horses at the end of their lives, in 2014. The Welfare and Behavior Commission disassociated itself from this position in 2015. Axel Kahn declared himself "allergic to hippophagy" and "horrified at the idea of one of his mares ending up with a knife". Amélie Tsaag Valren points out that the adaptation of these heavy breeds to the meat market has led to a drift in selection criteria, resulting in horses suffering from health problems due to obesity and repeated pregnancies. In analyzing this debate, Éric Baratay believes that the rejection of slaughter and hippophagy will win out hands down, as the vision of the horse as a livestock animal tends to disappear and concern only the older generations, while "natural horsemanship" and the desire to forge a strong bond with the animal have great success among young people. Belgium and Switzerland. The development of pension-retraite runs the risk of incompetent people offering poorly supervised services. The change in the horse's rhythm needs to be thought both ethically and practically, as the transition from intensive use to a total absence of use and contact with humans could generate unease. Moreover, the question of the horse's affect remains unresolved. On euthanasia and knackery For some horse owners, the animal's death is the culmination of a production cycle, while for others it represents a heavy emotional loss. Several vets have weighed in on the "best way" to put a horse to death. AVEF member Claire Scicluna argues that slaughter is better than euthanasia, saying she doesn't want healthy horse owners to go to vets to have their animals euthanized because they can't afford to maintain them. Euthanasia entails constraints, as the veterinarian must master the technique to offer a suffering-free death. Its impact on the environment is considered harmful, as is that of incineration. == On objectification, domination and the economic model ==

For Émilie De Cooker, "the objectification of the competition horse and the prior denial of its status as a moral subject stem from a reductionist conception of animal existence": She wishes to "encourage the creation of a type of riding, and equestrian sports, in which domination has no place. To think and practice a form of horsemanship that does not rely on the horse's inability to rebel, but instead allows it to express itself as an intelligent and sensitive being": On the newspaper Le Monde, Henri Seckel opposed the renaming of living beings for sponsorship "in the name of money", and testifies to the pressure exerted by companies on journalists to use the sponsor's name when writing sports articles. == On cloning ==

Horse cloning involves bioethical issues, since it leads to a high mortality rate of embryos, fetuses and newborn or young foals, as well as contributing to commodification. For these reasons, the Swiss National Stud concluded that "in the current state of knowledge, the use of horse cloning is ethically unjustifiable ". In the UK, the researcher William (Twink) Allen was refused permission to continue his cloning trials in 2004, as the animals could present malformations, anomalies and diseases, according to the British authorities. Dr Natasha Lane, of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), said it was not acceptable to clone horses "just to get a gold medal ". Allen spoke out against this decision, believing that the British government had "caved in to the animal rights lobby ". According to various surveys, including one carried out by Cheval Savoir in 2009, horse cloning is generally poorly accepted by riders and professionals. For French scientist Éric Palmer, the technique is "demonized" due to misunderstandings. The American Quarter Horse Association has stated that "[...] clones have no parents, cloning is not breeding. It's just photocopies of the same horse", pointing to its low success rate and the risk of developing yet unknown genetic disorders. The Jockey Club also strongly opposed. Dr Thomas Reed, who owns the private stud farm Morningside Stud in Ireland (where Hickstead was born), publicly opposed cloning after the accidental death of his stallion in competition at the end of 2011. Émilie De Cooker notes that, according to the cloning company Cryozootech, "the absence of animal suffering and the naturalness of gestation seem to be enough to end the debate on the legitimacy of this practice". It sees "the adoption of cloning as a breeding method in its own right as a sign of the trivialization of the relationship of commodification that man has established with the horse". == See also ==