War breaks out (1946) shaking hands after signing modus vivendi 1946 after
Fontainebleau Agreements In March 1946, a preliminary accord signed between the French and Ho Chi Minh which acknowledged the DRV as a free state within an Indochinese Federation in a "
French Union" and allowed a limited number of French troops within its borders to replace the Chinese forces which started gradually returning to China. In further negotiations, the French would seek to ratify Vietnam's position within the Union and the Vietnamese main priorities were preserving their independence and the reunification with the
Republic of Cochinchina, which had been created by
High Commissioner Georges d'Argenlieu in June. In September, once main negotiations had broken down in Paris over these two key issues, Ho Chi Minh and
Marius Moutet, the French
Minister of the Colonies, signed a temporary
modus vivendi which reaffirmed the March Accord, although no specifications were made on the issue of a
Nam Bộ (Cochinchina) reunification referendum and negotiations for a definitive treaty were set to begin no later than January 1947. In the north, an uneasy peace had been maintained during the negotiations, in November however, fighting broke out in Haiphong between the Việt Minh government and the French over a conflict of interest in import duty at the port. On November 23, 1946, the French fleet bombarded the Vietnamese sections of the city killing 6,000 Vietnamese civilians in one afternoon. The Việt Minh quickly agreed to a cease-fire and left the cities. This is known as the
Haiphong incident. There was never any intention among the Vietnamese to give up, as General
Võ Nguyên Giáp soon brought up 30,000 men to attack the city. Although the French were outnumbered, their superior weaponry and naval support made any Việt Minh attack unsuccessful. In 19 December, hostilities between the Việt Minh and the French
broke out in Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh, along with his government, was forced to evacuate the capital in favor of remote forested and mountainous areas. Guerrilla warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the country except far-flung areas. By January the following year, most provincial capitals had fallen to the French, while Hue fell in February after a six-week siege.
French offensives, creation of the State of Vietnam (1947–1949) In 1947, Ho Chi Minh and General Võ Nguyên Giáp retreated with his command into the
Việt Bắc, the mountainous forests of northern Vietnam. By March, France had taken control of the main population centers in the country. The French chose not to pursue the Việt Minh before the beginning of the
seasonal rains in May, and military operations were postponed until their conclusion. Come October, the French launched
Operation Léa with the objective of swiftly putting an end to the resistance movement by taking out the Vietnamese main battle units and the Việt Minh leadership at their base in
Bắc Kạn. Léa was followed by
Operation Ceinture in November, with similar aims. As a result of the French offensive, the Việt Minh would end up losing valuable resources and suffering heavy losses, 7,200–9,500
KIA. Nevertheless, both operations failed to capture Ho Chi Minh and his key lieutenants as intended, and the main Vietnamese battle units managed to survive. In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the Việt Minh politically, with an alternative government led by former emperor Bảo Đại to lead an "autonomous" government within the French Union of nations. This
new state ruled over northern and central Vietnam, excluding the colony of Cochinchina, and had limited autonomy. This initial accord with the French was decried by non-Communist nationalists and Bảo Đại withdrew from the agreement. It would not be until
March 1949 that the French would concede on the issue of unification and a final agreement would be reached. Two years prior, the French had refused Ho's proposal of a similar status within the French Union, albeit with some restrictions on French power and the latter's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam. However, they were willing to deal with Bảo Đại as he represented a non-radical option who could rally behind him the non-Communist nationalist movement. In January 1950, France officially recognized the nominal "independence" of the unified
State of Vietnam, led by Bảo Đại, as an
associated state within the French Union. However, France still controlled all foreign policy, every defense issue and would have a French Union army stationed in the country with complete freedom of movement. Within the framework of the French Union, France also granted independence to the other nations in Indochina, the Kingdoms of
Laos and
Cambodia. In January 1949, the
Vietnamese National Army was created to go along the formation of the new Vietnamese associated state. This was meant to bolster French numbers as their army found itself outnumbered by the
People's Army of Vietnam at this point in the war. To this end, the
CEFEO provided some of its officers to lead these new divisions.
Việt Minh reorganization (1949–1950) Throughout 1948 and 1949, the Việt Minh engaged in ambushes and sabotage of French convoys and infrastructure. Meanwhile, the French government was still looking for a political solution and major military operations stalled for a lack of manpower. With the triumph of the communists in
China's civil war in October 1949, the Vietnamese communists gained a major political ally on their northern border, who supported them with advisers, weapons and supplies along with camps where new recruits were trained. Between 1950 and 1951, Giap re-organized his local forces into five full conventional
infantry divisions, the
304th,
308th,
312th,
316th and the
320th. In January 1950, Ho's government gained recognition from China and the Soviet Union. Shortly after in February, the government of Bảo Đại gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom. Along with
Mao Zedong's victory in China, this gesture by the main Communist powers, played a part in shifting the US view of the war, which began to be seen as part of the global struggle against Communism. Starting in May, the United States began to provide military aid to France in the form of weaponry and military observers. In June 1950, the
Korean War broke out between communist
North Korea (DPRK) supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Korea (ROK) supported by the United States and its allies in the UN. The Cold War was turning 'hot' in East Asia, and the American government feared communist domination of the entire region would have deep implications for American interests. The US became strongly opposed to the government of Ho Chi Minh, in part, because it was supported and supplied by China. Throughout 1950, the DRV would seek to secure its control over the Chinese border, which would allow for a greater flow of supplies. In February, Giáp launched "Operation Lê Hong Phong I", taking control of the border town of
Lào Cai, in the high valley of the Red River and by April, most of the northeastern border was under Viet-Minh control, save for a string of posts along the eastern Tonkinese frontier;
Cao Bằng,
Đông Khê,
Thất Khê and
Lạng Sơn, from North to South, connected by the Colonial Route 4 (RC 4). On September 16 the Viet Minh launched a new offensive, "
Operation Lê Hong Phong II", along this route under the command of General
Hoàng Văn Thái. The Viet Minh attacked Đông Khê, which fell two days later. In response, the French decided to evacuate Cao Bằng, which had become isolated. Soldiers and civilians were to march south and join a group marching north from Thất Khê tasked with recapturing the lost position. However, despite having been ordered to destroy all equipment, the commander of the Cao Bằng force decided to bring along its artillery when they left on October 3, causing delays and making them vulnerable to ambushes. The two forces approached Đông Khê four days later but by were eventually encircled and defeated. This operation would cost the French around 6,000 soldiers. On October 17, faced with the PAVN's demonstrated ability to fight a conventional battle, the French command decided to abandon Lạng Sơn before it could come under attack, leaving behind considerable amounts of military supplies. The Viet-Minh now controlled most of the northern half of Tonkin.
Renewed French success (January–June 1951) A new French commander in chief and high commissioner,
General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny, was appointed in December 1950. With him began the construction of a defensive line of fortifications around the
Red River Delta, to protect against Việt Minh incursions and against a possible Chinese invasion. It became known as the
De Lattre Line. In 1950 and 1951, de Lattre implemented
scorched earth tactics in an effort to limit Việt Minh access to food and other supplies. Every effort by Võ Nguyên Giáp to break the De Lattre Line failed, and every attack he made was answered by a French counter-attack that destroyed his forces. Việt Minh casualties rose alarmingly during this period, leading some to question the leadership of the Communist government, even within the party. However, any benefit this may have reaped for France was negated by the increasing domestic opposition to the war in France.
Stalemate (July 1951–1953) On July 31, French General
Charles Chanson was assassinated during a
propaganda suicide attack at
Sa Đéc in South Vietnam that was blamed on the Việt Minh although it was argued in some quarters that Cao Đài nationalist
Trình Minh Thế could have been involved in its planning. during an ambush (1952) Following the Viet Minh's defeats on the Hanoi perimeter, De Lattre decided to
seize the city of Hòa Bình, 20 miles (32 km) west of the De Lattre Line, in an attempt to hinder the flow of supplies between Tonkin, which received direct Chinese support, and central and southern Vietnam. It also aimed to maintain the allegiance of the Muong troops. The city was captured by a parachute drop on November 14. The ensuing battle became increasingly costly to the French and after De Lattre fell ill from cancer and returned to Paris for treatment where he would die shortly thereafter in January 1952, his replacement as the overall commander of French forces in Indochina, General
Raoul Salan, decided to pull back from the
Hòa Bình salient. The French lost nearly 5,000 men and the Viet Minh "at least that number" according to historian
Phillip P. Davidson, while
Spencer C. Tucker claims 894 French killed and missing and 9,000 Viet Minh casualties. This campaign showed that the war was far from over. Throughout the war theater, the Việt Minh cut French supply lines and wore down the resolve of the French forces. There were continued raids, skirmishes and guerrilla attacks, but through most of the rest of the year each side withdrew to prepare for larger operations. In the
Battle of Nà Sản, starting on October 2, French commanders began using "
hedgehog" tactics, consisting in setting up well-defended outposts to get the Việt Minh out of the forests and force them to fight conventional battles instead of using guerrilla tactics. On October 17, 1952, Giáp launched attacks against the French garrisons along
Nghĩa Lộ, northwest of Hanoi, and overran much of the Black River valley, except for the airfield of Nà Sản where a strong French garrison entrenched. Giáp by now had control over most of Tonkin beyond the De Lattre Line. Raoul Salan, seeing the situation as critical, launched
Operation Lorraine along the Clear River to force Giáp to relieve pressure on the Nghĩa Lộ outposts. On October 29, 1952, in the largest operation in Indochina to date, 30,000 French Union soldiers moved out from the De Lattre Line to attack the Việt Minh supply dumps at
Phú Yên. Salan took
Phú Thọ on November 5, and
Phu Doan on November 9 by a
parachute drop, and finally Phú Yên on November 13. Giáp at first did not react to the French offensive. He planned to wait until their supply lines were overextended and then cut them off from the Red River Delta. Salan correctly guessed what the Việt Minh were up to and cancelled the operation on November 14, beginning to withdraw back to the De Lattre Line. The only major fighting during the operation came during the withdrawal, when the Việt Minh ambushed the French column at
Chan Muong on November 17. The road was cleared after a bayonet charge by the Indochinese March Battalion, and the withdrawal could continue. The French lost around 1,200 men during the whole operation, most of them during the Chan Muong ambush. The operation was partially successful, proving that the French could strike out at targets outside the De Lattre Line. However, it failed to divert the Việt Minh offensive or seriously damage its logistical network. naval fighter aircraft of the
Aéronavale drops
napalm on Việt Minh Division 320th's artillery during
Operation Mouette (November 1953) On April 9, 1953, Giáp, after having failed repeatedly in direct attacks on French positions in Vietnam, changed strategy and began to pressure the French by invading Laos, surrounding and defeating several French outposts such as
Muong Khoua. In May, General
Henri Navarre replaced Salan as supreme commander of French forces in Indochina. He reported to the French government "... that there was no possibility of winning the war in Indo-China", saying that the best the French could hope for was a stalemate. Through the Navarre Plan, French forces and the Vietnamese National Army sought to use their advantage in technology and arms to hold cities and key roads, thereby hoping to force the Việt Minh into an impasse and negotiation. and Indochinese allies. The battle was fought near the village of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam and became the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War. The battle began on March 13 when the Việt Minh began attacks to isolate French strong points at Điện Biên Phủ . At least 2,200 members of the 20,000-strong French forces died, and another 1,729 were reported missing after the battle, and 11,721 were captured. The Viet Minh suffered approximately 25,000 casualties over the course of the battle, with as many as 10,000 Viet Minh personnel having been killed in the battle. The French prisoners taken at Điện Biên Phủ were the greatest number the Việt Minh had ever captured: one-third of the total captured during the entire war. Dien Bien Phu was a serious defeat for the French and was the decisive battle of the Indochina war. The battle would thus heavily influence the outcome of the 1954 Geneva accords.
Geneva Conference Negotiations between France and the Viet Minh began in Geneva in May 1954 at the Geneva Conference, during which time the French Union and the Viet Minh were fighting a battle at Dien Bien Phu. In France,
Pierre Mendès France was elected as Prime Minister on 17 June 1954 on a promise to achieve a ceasefire in four months.
End of the war One month after Đien Bien Phu, the composite Groupe Mobile 100 (GM100) of the French Union forces evacuated the
An Khê outpost. They were ambushed by a larger Viet Minh force at the
Battle of Mang Yang Pass on 24 June and again at the
Battle of Chu Dreh Pass on 17 July, suffering heavy losses. This was the last battle of the war, as the Geneva accords were signed four days later, and the final ceasefire took effect on 11 August 1954. ==Aftermath==