Arguments for the existence of God Logical arguments Aquinas' Five Ways In article 3, question 2, first part of his
Summa Theologica,
Thomas Aquinas developed his five arguments for God's existence. These arguments are grounded in an Aristotelian ontology and make use of the
infinite regression argument. Aquinas did not intend to fully prove the existence of God as he is orthodoxly conceived (with all of his traditional attributes), but proposed his Five Ways as a first stage, which he built upon later in his work. Aquinas' Five Ways argued from the
unmoved mover,
first cause,
necessary being,
argument from degree, and the
argument from final cause. One type of cosmological, or "first cause" argument, typically called the
Kalam cosmological argument, asserts that since everything that begins to exist has a cause, and the universe began to exist, the universe must have had a cause which was itself not caused. This ultimate first cause is identified with God. Christian apologist
William Lane Craig gives a version of this argument in the following form: • Whatever begins to exist has a cause. • The Universe began to exist. • Therefore, the Universe had a cause.
Ontological argument The ontological argument has been formulated by philosophers including
St. Anselm and
René Descartes. The argument proposes that God's existence is self-evident. The logic, depending on the formulation, reads roughly as follows: Thomas Aquinas criticized the argument for proposing a definition of God which, if God is transcendent, should be impossible for humans. Immanuel Kant criticized the proof from a logical standpoint: he stated that the term "God" really signifies two different terms: both idea of God, and God. Kant concluded that the proof is equivocation, based on the ambiguity of the word God. Kant also challenged the argument's assumption that existence is a predicate (of perfection) because it does not add anything to the essence of a being. If existence is not a predicate, then it is not
necessarily true that the greatest possible being exists. A common rebuttal to Kant's critique is that, although "existence" does add something to both the concept and the reality of God, the concept would be vastly different if its referent is an unreal Being. Another response to Kant is attributed to Alvin Plantinga, who says that even if one were to grant that existence is not a real predicate,
necessary existence, which is the correct formulation of an understanding of God,
is a real predicate.
Gödel's ontological proof The proof uses
modal logic, which distinguishes between
necessary truths and
contingent truths. In the most common semantics for modal logic, many "
possible worlds" are considered. A
truth is
necessary if it is true in all possible worlds. By contrast, if a statement happens to be true in our world, but is false in another world, then it is a
contingent truth. A statement that is true in some world (not necessarily our own) is called a
possible truth. Furthermore, the proof uses
higher-order (modal) logic because the definition of God employs an explicit quantification over properties. First, Gödel axiomatizes the notion of a "positive property": for each property
φ, either
φ or its
negation ¬
φ must be positive, but not both (axiom 2). If a positive property
φ implies a property
ψ in each possible world, then
ψ is positive, too (axiom 1). Gödel then argues that each positive property is "possibly exemplified", i.e. applies at least to some object in some world (theorem 1). Defining an object to be Godlike if it has all positive properties (definition 1), and requiring that property to be positive itself (axiom 3), Gödel shows that in
some possible world a Godlike object exists (theorem 2), called "God" in the following. Gödel proceeds to prove that a Godlike object exists in
every possible world.
Meinongian argument Trademark argument Plantinga's free-will defense Specifically, the argument from evil asserts that the following set of propositions are, by themselves, logically inconsistent or contradictory: • God is
omniscient (all-knowing) • God is
omnipotent (all-powerful) • God is
omnibenevolent (morally perfect) • There is evil in the world Plantinga's free-will defense begins by noting a distinction between
moral evil and
physical evil (Plantinga's defense primarily references moral evil), then asserting that Mackie's argument failed to establish an
explicit logical contradiction between God and the existence of moral evil. In other words, Plantinga shows that (1–4) are not on their own contradictory, and that any contradiction must originate from an atheologian's
implicit unstated assumptions, assumptions representing premises not stated in the argument itself. With an
explicit contradiction ruled out, an atheologian must add premises to the argument for it to succeed. Nonetheless, if Plantinga had offered no further argument, then an atheologian's intuitive impressions that a contradiction must exist would have remained unanswered. Plantinga sought to resolve this by offering two further points. First, Plantinga, using
modal logic, pointed out that omnipotence is the power to do all things logically possible, and thus God could not be expected to do things that are logically impossible. God could not, for example, create square circles, act contrary to his nature, or, more relevantly, create beings with free will that would never choose evil. Taking this latter point further, Plantinga argued that the moral value of human free will is a credible offsetting justification that God could have as a morally justified reason for permitting the existence of evil. Plantinga did not claim to have shown that the conclusion of the logical problem is wrong, nor did he assert that God's reason for allowing evil is, in fact, to preserve free will. Instead, his argument sought only to show that the
logical problem of evil was invalid. Plantinga's defense has received strong support among academic philosophers, with many agreeing that it defeated the logical problem of evil. Contemporary atheologians have presented arguments claiming to have found the additional premises needed to create an explicitly contradictory
theistic set by adding to the propositions 1–4.
Proof of the Truthful Empirical arguments Argument from beauty Argument from consciousness Argument from design Argument from natural laws The
argument from natural laws (promoted by
Isaac Newton,
René Descartes, and
Robert Boyle) holds that the existence of God is evident by the observation of
governing laws and existing order in the Universe.
Argument from psychedelics Human subjects in scientific studies have reported that
psychedelic drugs such as
LSD,
mescaline,
psilocybin mushrooms, and
DMT provide perceptions of a transcendent reality, including encounters with God. Since prehistory, cultures around the world have used
entheogens for the purpose of enabling
mystical experiences. In
The Doors of Perception, English philosopher and writer
Aldous Huxley recounts his mystical experiences while he was under the influence of mescaline, arguing that the human brain normally filters reality, and that such drugs remove this filter, exposing humans to a broader spectrum of conscious awareness which he calls the "
Mind at Large".
Argument from sensus divinitatis The argument from
sensus divinitatis (Latin for 'sense of divinity') posits that humans are born with an innate sense, or cognitive mechanism, that grants them awareness of God's presence.
Alvin Plantinga argues that if beliefs formed by sensory experience can be considered properly basic, requiring no external justification, then beliefs in theism formed by a
sensus divinitatis can be considered properly basic as well, and thus require no external justification. Research in the
cognitive science of religion suggests that the human brain has a natural and evolutionary predisposition towards theistic beliefs, which
Kelly James Clark argues is empirical evidence for the presence of a
sensus divinitatis.
Rational warrant Philosopher
Stephen Toulmin is notable for his work in the history of ideas that features the (rational) warrant: a statement that connects the premises to a conclusion. Joseph Hinman applied Toulmin's approach in his argument for the existence of God, particularly in his book
The Trace of God: A Rational Warrant for Belief. Instead of attempting to prove the existence of God, Hinman argues you can "demonstrate the rationally-warranted nature of belief". Hinman uses a wide range of studies, including ones by Robert Wuthnow, Andrew Greeley, Mathes and Kathleen Nobel to establish that mystical experiences are life-transformative in a way that is significant, positive and lasting. He draws on additional work to add several additional major points to his argument. First, the people who have these experiences not only do not exhibit traditional signs of mental illness but, often, are in better mental and physical health than the general population due to the experience. Second, the experiences work. In other words, they provide a framework for navigating life that is useful and effective. All of the evidence of the positive effects of the experience upon people's lives he, adapting a term from
Derrida, terms "the trace of God": the footprints left behind that point to the impact. Finally, he discusses how both religious experience and belief in God is, and has always been, normative among humans: people do not need to prove the existence of God. If there is no need to prove, Hinman argues, and the Trace of God (for instance, the impact of mystical experiences on them), belief in God is rationally warranted.
Inductive arguments Some have put forward arguments for the existence of God based on
inductive reasoning. For example, one class of philosophers asserts that the proofs for the existence of God present a fairly large probability though not absolute certainty. A number of obscure points, they say, always remain; an act of faith is required to dismiss these difficulties. This view is maintained, among others, by the
Scottish statesman
Arthur Balfour in his book
The Foundations of Belief (1895). The opinions set forth in this work were adopted in
France by
Ferdinand Brunetière, the editor of the
Revue des deux Mondes. Many orthodox Protestants express themselves in the same manner, as, for instance, Dr. E. Dennert, President of the Kepler Society, in his work
Ist Gott tot? Metaphysical arguments Argument from degree Argument from desire C. S. Lewis, in
Mere Christianity and elsewhere, posed that all natural desires have a natural object. One thirsts, and there exists water to quench this thirst; One hungers, and there exists food to satisfy this hunger. He then argued that the human desire for perfect justice, perfect peace, perfect happiness, and other intangibles strongly implies the existence of such things, though they seem unobtainable on earth. He further posed that the unquenchable desires of this life strongly imply that we are intended for a different life, necessarily governed by a God who can provide the desired intangibles.
Argument from love Argument from mathematics The argument from mathematics is presented by American philosopher
William Lane Craig. In the
philosophy of mathematics, the ontological status of mathematical entities, such as numbers, sets, and functions is debated. Within this philosophical context, two primary positions emerge:
mathematical realism and
mathematical anti-realism. Realists argue that mathematical objects exist independently of human thought as abstract, non-causal entities. In contrast, anti-realists deny the independent existence of these mathematical objects. A pivotal issue in this debate is the phenomenon that physicist
Eugene Wigner termed "the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics." This refers to the ability of mathematics to describe and predict phenomena in the natural world, exemplified by theoretical physicist
Peter Higgs' use of mathematical equations to predict the existence of a fundamental particle, which was verified experimentally decades later. Craig posits that this effectiveness presents a significant philosophical question about the applicability of mathematics, regardless of one's stance on the existence of mathematical entities. He argues that theism provides a more compelling framework for understanding this phenomenon than
metaphysical naturalism. Under realism, non-theistic perspectives might view the alignment of mathematical abstractions with physical reality as a mere coincidence. However, a theistic realist might argue that this alignment is intentional, as a Supreme Being created the world based on these abstract
mathematical structures. On the other hand, anti-realists, particularly those of a naturalistic persuasion, see mathematical relationships as reflections of real-world interactions, without necessitating abstract entities. Yet, Craig challenges this view by questioning why the physical world inherently exhibits such complex mathematical patterns without an intentional design. In contrast, the theistic anti-realist has a straightforward explanation: the world reflects a complex mathematical structure because it was created by God following an abstract model. Thus, Craig concludes that theism offers a superior explanation for why mathematics applies so effectively to understanding and predicting the physical world.
Argument from morality Argument from reason Transcendental argument Subjective arguments Argument from religious experience The argument from religious experience holds that the best explanation for
religious experiences is that they are actual perceptions of God's presence. Philosopher Robert Sloan Lee notes that this argument possesses an "unexpected resilience" despite seemingly being able to be easily defeated by simple objections, such as pointing out the existence of
hallucinations. Philosopher
William J. Abraham states "We do not generally believe that because some reports of ordinary natural objects sometimes involve illusion, hallucination, and the like, then all reports do so". • The
witness argument gives credibility to personal
witnesses, contemporary and throughout the ages. A variation of this is the
argument from miracles (also referred to as "the priest stories") which relies on testimony of supernatural events to establish the existence of God. • The
majority argument argues that the theism of people throughout most of recorded history and in many different places provides
prima facie demonstration of God's existence. • Islam asserts that the revelation of its holy book, the
Qur'an, and its unique literary attributes, vindicate its divine authorship, and thus the existence of God. •
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as
Mormonism, similarly asserts that the miraculous appearance of God, Jesus Christ, and angels to
Joseph Smith and others and subsequent finding and translation of the
Book of Mormon establishes the existence of God. The whole
Latter Day Saint movement makes the same claim for example
Community of Christ,
Church of Christ (Temple Lot),
Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite),
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite),
Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite), etc. • The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), similarly asserts that the finding and translation of the
Plates of Laban, also known as the Brass Plates, into the
Book of the Law of the Lord and
Voree plates by
James Strang,
One Mighty and Strong, establishes the existence of God. • Various sects that have broken from the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) (such as
Church of Christ "With the Elijah Message" and
Church of Christ (Assured Way)) claim that the message brought by
John the Baptist, One Mighty and Strong, to
Otto Fetting and
W. A. Draves in
The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel establishes the existence of God.
Arguments from historical events •
Christianity and
Judaism assert that God intervened in key specific moments in history, especially at
the Exodus and the giving of the
Ten Commandments in front of all the tribes of Israel, positing an argument from empirical evidence stemming from sheer number of witnesses, thus demonstrating his existence; this is also known as the
Kuzari argument. •
Christological arguments assert that certain events of the Christian
New Testament are historically accurate, and prove God's existence, namely: • The
Resurrection of Jesus (an
argument from miracles)
Arguments from the authority of historical personages These arguments are an
appeal to authority: • The claims of Jesus, as a morally upstanding person, to be the son of God • Jesus, said to be a wise person, believed that God exists • The belief of
Lekhraj Kripalani, who founded the
Brahma Kumaris religion when God was said to enter his body
Anecdotal arguments • The sincere seeker's argument, espoused by Muslim Sufis of the Tasawwuf tradition, posits that every individual who follows a formulaic path towards guidance, arrives at the same destination of conviction in the existence of God and specifically in the monotheistic tenets and laws of Islam. This apparent natural law for guidance and belief could only be consistent if the formula and supplication were being answered by the same Divine entity being addressed, as claimed in Islamic revelations. This was formally organized by Imam Abu Hamid
Al-Ghazali in such notable works as "Deliverance from Error" and "The Alchemy of Happiness", in Arabic "
Kimiya-yi sa'ādat". The path includes following the golden rule of no harm to others and treating others with compassion, silence or minimal speech, seclusion, daily fasting or minimalist diet of water and basic nourishment, honest wages, and daily supplication towards "the Creator of the Universe" for guidance. • The
Argument from a proper basis argues that belief in God is "properly basic"; that it is similar to statements like "I see a chair" or "I feel pain". Such beliefs are non-falsifiable and, thus, neither provable nor disprovable; they concern perceptual beliefs or indisputable mental states. • In
Germany, the School of
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi taught that human reason is able to perceive the suprasensible. Jacobi distinguished three faculties: sense,
reason, and understanding. Just as sense has immediate perception of the material so has reason immediate perception of the immaterial, while the understanding brings these perceptions to a person's consciousness and unites them to one another. God's existence, then, cannot be proven (Jacobi, like Immanuel Kant, rejected the absolute value of the principle of causality), it must be felt by the mind. • The same theory was advocated in Germany by
Friedrich Schleiermacher, who assumed an inner religious sense by means of which people feel religious truths. According to Schleiermacher, religion consists solely in this inner perception, and dogmatic doctrines are inessential.
Hindu arguments The school of Vedanta argues that one of the proofs of the existence of God is the law of
karma. In a commentary to
Brahma Sutras (III, 2, 38, and 41),
Adi Sankara argues that the original karmic actions themselves cannot bring about the proper results at some future time; neither can super sensuous, non-intelligent qualities like
adrsta by themselves mediate the appropriate, justly deserved pleasure and pain. The fruits, according to him must be administered through the action of a conscious agent, namely, a supreme being (
Ishvara). The
Nyaya school make similar arguments.
Other arguments • The
evolutionary argument against naturalism, which argues that naturalistic evolution is incapable of providing humans with the cognitive apparatus necessary for their knowledge to have positive epistemic status. • An argument from belief in God being properly basic, as presented by Alvin Plantinga. • Argument from personal identity. • Argument from the "divine attributes of scientific law".
Arguments against the existence of God The arguments below aim to show that God does not exist—by showing a creator is unnecessary or
contradictory, at odds with known
scientific or
historical facts, or that there is insufficient proof that God exists.
Logical/scientific arguments The following arguments deduce (some using science), mostly through self-contradiction, the non-existence of God as "the Creator". • No scientific evidence of God's existence has been found. Therefore, according to
scientific skeptic or
scientist worldviews, one should not believe in God; more philosophically, whether or not God exists is unknown,
or even, God does not exist (depending on how strongly such worldviews are held; or, depending on how strongly one believes that there is no scientific evidence of God's existence). (See also:
scientific atheism). •
Stephen Hawking and co-author
Leonard Mlodinow state in their book
The Grand Design that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God,
then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings. Christian scholars, like
Leonhard Euler and
Bernard d'Espagnat, disagree with that kind of skeptical argument. • Dawkins'
Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit analogizes the above. Some theists argue that
evolution and abiogenesis are akin to a hurricane assembling a Boeing 747—that the universe (or life) is too complex, cannot be made by non-living matter alone and would have to be designed by someone, who theists call God. Dawkin's counter-argument is that such a God would himself be complex—the "Ultimate" Boeing 747—and therefore require a designer. •
Theological noncognitivism is the argument that religious language – specifically, words such as "God" – are not cognitively meaningful and that irreducible definitions of God are circular. • The analogy of
Russell's teapot argues that the
burden of proof for the existence of God lies with the theist rather than the atheist; it can be considered an extension of
Occam's Razor.
Arguments from incompatible divine properties Some arguments focus on the existence of specific conceptions of God as being omniscient, omnipotent, and morally perfect.
The Omnipotence Paradox The Omnipotence Paradox is a philosophical problem that challenges the idea of an all-powerful God. The paradox argues that if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to do anything, including things that are logically impossible. However, if God cannot do something that is logically impossible, then he is not truly omnipotent. This paradox has been debated by philosophers for centuries and continues to be a topic of discussion in modern times. The basic form of the Omnipotence Paradox can be presented as follows: Can God create a stone so heavy that he cannot lift it? If God can create such a stone, then he is not omnipotent because he cannot lift it. If God cannot create such a stone, then he is also not omnipotent because there is something he cannot do. One of the earliest recorded discussions of the Omnipotence Paradox can be found in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher
Epicurus. In his work "
Letter to Menoeceus," Epicurus argues that if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to prevent evil from existing in the world. However, since evil does exist, either God is not omnipotent or he is not benevolent. Another version of the omnipotence paradox involves God's ability to change the past. If God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to change events that have already occurred. But if he can change the past, then he would be altering his own actions and decisions, which would mean that he was not truly free to act in the first place. Another early discussion of the Omnipotence Paradox can be found in the writings of the medieval philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas argued that God's omnipotence was limited by his own nature and by logical laws. He believed that God could not perform actions that were logically contradictory, such as creating a square circle or making 2+2=5. One of the most famous versions of this paradox is the question: "Can God create a being more powerful than himself?" This question implies a contradiction because if God is truly omnipotent, then he should be able to create anything, including a being more powerful than himself. However, if such a being exists, then God would no longer be omnipotent.
The omniscience paradox The omniscience paradox challenges the idea that God can know everything that will happen in the future. If God knows everything that will happen in advance, then it seems that human beings do not have free will. After all, if God already knows what we will do in every situation, then it seems that we cannot choose to do anything differently. Another version of the omniscience paradox involves God's knowledge of his own future actions. If God knows what he will do in advance, then it seems that he does not have the freedom to choose otherwise. But if he does not know what he will do, then he is not truly omniscient. A more recent version of the omniscience paradox is the "paradox of the stone tablet." This argument goes as follows: suppose that God writes down everything that will happen in the future on a stone tablet. If God is truly omniscient, then he already knows what is written on the tablet. But if what is written on the tablet is true, then it seems that human beings do not have free will.
The contradiction of omniscience and omnipotence The contradiction of omniscience and omnipotence has been a topic of philosophical debate for centuries. The concept of omniscience refers to the idea that God knows everything, while omnipotence refers to the idea that God is all-powerful. The contradiction arises when one considers whether an all-knowing God can also be all-powerful. If God knows everything, then he must know what he will do in the future, and if he knows what he will do in the future, then he cannot change his mind and do something else. This would mean that God is not all-powerful because he is limited by his knowledge of the future. On the other hand, if God is all-powerful, then he should be able to change his mind and do something else, but if he does this, then he cannot be all-knowing because he did not know what he was going to do in the first place.
The problem of evil The problem of evil against God is one of the most challenging philosophical and theological issues. It seeks to reconcile the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and benevolent God with the presence of evil and suffering in the world. This problem has been debated for centuries by philosophers, theologians, and scholars from different religious traditions. The problem of evil can be formulated in different ways. One common formulation is the logical problem of evil, which argues that the existence of evil is logically incompatible with the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God. This argument goes as follows: 1. Suppose God is defined by the properties of being all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good. 2. If God is all-powerful, then he can prevent evil from occurring. 3. If God is all-knowing, then he knows where evil exists and knows how to eliminate evil. 4. If God is perfectly good, then he would want to prevent evil from occurring. 5. Evil exists. 6. Therefore, God does not exist. This argument challenges the traditional concept of God as an omnipotent and omnibenevolent being who created the world and governs it with love and care. If such a God exists, why does he allow evil to happen? The existence of natural disasters, diseases, wars, crimes, and other forms of suffering seems to contradict the idea of a loving and compassionate God. Another formulation of the problem of evil is the evidential problem of evil, which argues that while the existence of evil may not logically disprove the existence of God, it provides strong evidence against his existence. This argument acknowledges that it is possible for an all-powerful and all-good God to have reasons for allowing evil to occur that are beyond our understanding. However, it contends that the sheer amount and intensity of evil in the world make it highly unlikely that such reasons exist. The problem of evil has been a central concern in the philosophy of religion since ancient times. In his dialogue "
The Euthyphro,"
Plato raises the question of whether the gods love what is good because it is good, or whether it is good because the gods love it. This question raises the issue of whether morality is independent of God or dependent on him. If morality is independent of God, then God may not be necessary for moral values and duties to exist. If morality is dependent on God, then it raises the problem of whether God's commands are arbitrary or whether there is a reason behind them.
The problem of divine immutability The problem of divine immutability is a philosophical and theological issue that has been debated for centuries. At the heart of the problem is the question of whether or not God can change. This question has far-reaching implications for how we understand the nature of God, the relationship between God and creation, and the problem of evil. One of the main arguments for divine immutability is based on the idea that God is perfect and complete in all respects. According to this view, if God were to change in any way, it would imply that there was something lacking or imperfect in God's nature. This would be inconsistent with the idea of a perfect and complete being. Another argument for divine immutability is based on the idea that God exists outside of time. According to this view, God's nature is eternal and unchanging, and therefore cannot be affected by anything that happens within time. This means that God cannot change in response to events in the world, since these events are themselves temporal and subject to change. However, there are also a number of arguments against divine immutability. One of these is based on the idea that if God cannot change, then it would be impossible for God to interact with the world in any meaningful way. According to this view, if God's nature is fixed and unchanging, then there can be no real relationship between God and creation. Another argument against divine immutability is based on the problem of evil. If God cannot change, then it would seem that God must have always known about and allowed for the existence of evil in the world. This raises questions about how we can reconcile a perfectly good and loving God with a world that contains so much suffering and injustice.
The problem of hell This is one of the most difficult challenges to the existence of God. The basic argument is that if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good, then why would he create a place of eternal punishment like hell? This question has been debated by philosophers and theologians for centuries. The problem of hell can be traced to ancient times. The concept of an afterlife was common in many cultures, but the idea of eternal punishment was not. The ancient Greeks believed in a realm called Hades where the dead went, but it was not a place of punishment. The ancient Egyptians believed in a judgment after death that determined whether a person would go to a good or bad afterlife, but again, it was not eternal punishment. It was not until the rise of Christianity that the concept of eternal punishment in hell became widespread. The
Christian concept of hell is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the Bible. According to Christian theology, hell is a place of eternal punishment for those who have rejected God and lived sinful lives. It is often described as a place of fire and torment where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth. The idea of eternal punishment in hell has been controversial throughout Christian history. One argument against the existence of God based on the problem of hell is that it seems incompatible with God's perfect goodness. If God is perfectly good, then why would he create a place like hell where people suffer for eternity? This argument has been made by many philosophers throughout history.
Transcendental Argument for the Non-existence of God (TANG) The Transcendental Argument for the Non-Existence of God (TANG) is a philosophical argument that attempts to demonstrate the non-existence of God by showing that the concept of God is logically incompatible with certain necessary conditions for rationality. The argument is based on the idea that if certain necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible. The proponents of TANG argue that it is a powerful argument against theism, and it has been the subject of much debate in philosophical circles. The basic structure of TANG can be summarized as follows: 1. If rationality exists, then certain necessary conditions for rationality must be true. 2. The existence of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions for rationality. 3. Therefore, if these necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible. The proponents of TANG argue that there are three necessary conditions for rationality: 1. The laws of logic are valid. 2. Our cognitive faculties are reliable. 3. There is an objective moral standard. According to TANG, if these three necessary conditions are true, then the existence of God is impossible. Firstly, proponents of TANG argue that the laws of logic are valid and necessary for rationality. They contend that if the laws of logic were not valid, then we could not reason or make sense of anything. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that the laws of logic be valid and universally applicable. Secondly, proponents of TANG argue that our cognitive faculties must be reliable in order for us to reason rationally. They contend that if our cognitive faculties were not reliable, then we could not trust our own reasoning processes and would have no basis for knowledge or belief. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that our cognitive faculties be reliable. Finally, proponents of TANG argue that there must be an objective moral standard in order for us to reason rationally. They contend that if there were no objective moral standard, then we could not make moral judgments or reason about ethical issues. Therefore, they argue that it is necessary for rationality that there be an objective moral standard. Proponents of TANG argue that the existence of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions for rationality. They contend that if God exists, then the laws of logic are contingent on his will and could be different from what they are. They also argue that if God exists, then our cognitive faculties are contingent on his will and could be unreliable. Finally, they argue that if God exists, then morality is contingent on his will and there is no objective moral standard. Therefore, proponents of TANG conclude that if these necessary conditions for rationality are true, then the existence of God is impossible. They argue that the concept of God is logically incompatible with these necessary conditions and therefore cannot exist.
Atheist-Existential Argument The
atheist-existential argument posits that human existence is characterized by absurdity, meaninglessness, and despair. According to this argument, humans are finite beings living in an infinite universe, and their existence is devoid of any inherent purpose or meaning. Proponents of this argument contend that if God existed, he would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist.
Jean-Paul Sartre was one of the most prominent proponents of the atheist-existential argument. In his book
Existentialism is a Humanism, Sartre argues that human existence is absurd because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. He contends that humans are free to create their own meaning and purpose but are ultimately responsible for their choices and actions. Sartre asserts that if God existed, he would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist. Similarly,
Friedrich Nietzsche argues in his book
Thus Spoke Zarathustra that human existence is meaningless because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. Nietzsche contends that humans must create their own values and meanings, and that the concept of God is a human invention that serves as a crutch for those who cannot accept the absurdity of existence. Nietzsche asserts that the death of God is a necessary step in human evolution, as it allows humanity to embrace its freedom and create its own values and meanings.
Albert Camus also presents a similar argument in his book
The Myth of Sisyphus. Camus argues that human existence is absurd because there is no inherent purpose or meaning to life. He contends that humans must create their own meaning in the face of this absurdity, and that the concept of God is a distraction from this task. Camus asserts that the only way to confront the absurdity of existence is through rebellion, which involves embracing life despite its lack of inherent meaning.
Martin Heidegger also presents an existentialist argument for the non-existence of God in his book
Being and Time. Heidegger contends that human existence is characterized by anxiety and dread because humans are aware of their mortality and the ultimate futility of their actions. He argues that if God existed, he would have provided humanity with a clear purpose and meaning for existence, thus alleviating this anxiety. However, since no such purpose or meaning exists, it follows that God does not exist.
The "no reason" argument The "no reason" argument tries to show that an omnipotent and omniscient being would not have any reason to act in any way, specifically by creating the universe, because it would have no needs, wants, or desires since these very concepts are subjectively human. Since the universe exists, there is a contradiction, and therefore, an omnipotent god cannot exist. This argument is expounded upon by
Scott Adams in the book ''
God's Debris'', which puts forward a form of
Pandeism as its fundamental theological model. A similar argument is put forward in
Ludwig von Mises's "Human Action". He referred to it as the "praxeological argument" and claimed that a perfect being would have long ago satisfied all its wants and desires and would no longer be able to take action in the present without proving that it had been unable to achieve its wants faster—showing it imperfect. The argument is based on the idea that if something exists, there must be a reason or explanation for its existence. Therefore, if God exists, there must be a reason or explanation for his existence. However, proponents of the "no reason" argument argue that there is no reason or explanation for God's existence, and therefore he does not exist. One of the main proponents of the "no reason" argument is
J. L. Mackie. In his book
The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God, Mackie argues that the concept of an uncaused cause, which is often used to explain God's existence, is flawed. He argues that if everything must have a cause or explanation for its existence, then God must also have a cause or explanation for his existence. However, since God is often described as an uncaused cause, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God. Another proponent of the "no reason" argument is Bertrand Russell. In his book
Why I Am Not a Christian, Russell argues that the concept of God as an uncaused cause is illogical. He argues that if everything must have a cause or explanation for its existence, then God must also have a cause or explanation for his existence. However, since God is often described as an uncaused cause, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God. Furthermore, proponents of the "no reason" argument argue that the burden of proof lies with those who claim that God exists. They argue that since there is no evidence or reason to believe in God's existence, it is more reasonable to assume that he does not exist. In addition to these arguments, proponents of the "no reason" argument also point to the problem of evil as evidence against God's existence. They argue that if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good, then he would not allow evil to exist in the world for any reason. He would have no specific reason for doing so. However, since evil does exist and is allowed to, this creates a contradiction in the concept of God.
Empirical arguments The following empirical arguments rely on observations or experimentation to yield their conclusions.
Argument from naturalism The argument from naturalism is a philosophical argument that asserts that the natural world is all there is and that supernatural explanations are unnecessary. This argument is based on the premise that the universe operates according to natural laws and that these laws can be discovered through scientific inquiry. The argument from naturalism has been a topic of debate among philosophers for centuries, with proponents and opponents presenting various arguments and counterarguments. The argument from naturalism can be traced to ancient Greek philosophy, where philosophers such as
Democritus and Epicurus argued that the universe was composed of atoms and void, with no need for supernatural explanations. However, it was not until the Enlightenment period in the 18th century that naturalism became a dominant philosophical position. During this time, philosophers such as David Hume and Immanuel Kant argued that knowledge could only be derived from empirical observation and rational analysis, without recourse to supernatural explanations. One of the key premises of the argument from naturalism is that the natural world is all there is. According to this view, there are no supernatural entities or forces that exist beyond the physical realm. This premise is based on the assumption that everything in the universe operates according to natural laws, which can be discovered through scientific inquiry. As philosopher
Paul Kurtz states, "the naturalistic outlook holds that nature is a self-contained system of physical causes and effects" Another important premise of the argument from naturalism is that supernatural explanations are unnecessary. According to this view, any phenomenon in the universe can be explained through natural causes and processes, without invoking supernatural entities or forces. This premise is based on the assumption that naturalistic explanations are sufficient to account for all observed phenomena. As philosopher
William L. Rowe states, "Naturalism holds that there is no need to postulate any supernatural entities or forces in order to explain the world". Proponents of the argument from naturalism argue that naturalistic explanations are more parsimonious than supernatural explanations. This means that naturalistic explanations are simpler and require fewer assumptions than supernatural explanations. For example, if a person observes a tree falling, a naturalistic explanation would be that the tree fell due to gravity, whereas a supernatural explanation would be that a deity caused the tree to fall. The naturalistic explanation is simpler and requires fewer assumptions than the supernatural explanation. Opponents of the argument from naturalism argue that there are phenomena in the universe that cannot be explained through naturalistic causes and processes. These phenomena are often referred to as "supernatural" or "
paranormal" and include things like miracles, psychic abilities, and
near-death experiences. According to opponents of naturalism, these phenomena require supernatural explanations. However, proponents of the argument from naturalism counter that there is no empirical evidence to support supernatural explanations for these phenomena. They argue that many supposed supernatural phenomena can be explained through naturalistic causes and processes. For example, near-death experiences can be explained through changes in brain chemistry and oxygen deprivation, rather than as evidence of an afterlife.
The Argument from Evolution The Argument from Evolution against God's existence is a philosophical argument that attempts to prove the non-existence of God by using the theory of evolution. The argument is based on the idea that the theory of evolution provides a natural explanation for the diversity of life on Earth, and therefore, there is no need to invoke a divine creator. The theory of evolution was first proposed by
Charles Darwin in his book
On the Origin of Species in 1859. According to the theory, all living organisms have evolved over time from a common ancestor through a process of natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time depending on their usefulness for survival and reproduction. Over millions of years, this process has led to the vast diversity of life we see on Earth today. One of the key arguments against God's existence based on evolution is known as the argument from imperfection. This argument suggests that if God were responsible for creating all life on Earth, then why would he create imperfect organisms? For example, why would he create animals with vestigial organs that serve no purpose or cause suffering? Another argument against God's existence based on evolution is known as the argument from bad design. This argument suggests that if God were responsible for creating all life on Earth, then why would he create organisms with such poor design features? For example, why would he create animals with eyes that are poorly designed or prone to disease?
The Euthyphro dilemma The Euthyphro dilemma is a philosophical problem that raises questions about the relationship between morality and God's existence. The dilemma was first presented by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato in his dialogue "Euthyphro." The dilemma asks whether something is morally good because God commands it, or whether God commands it because it is morally good. This dilemma has been used as an argument against the existence of God, as it seems to suggest that either God is not necessary for morality or that God's commands are arbitrary and not based on any objective standard of morality. The first horn of the dilemma suggests that something is morally good because God commands it. This view is known as divine command theory, which states that moral truths are grounded in God's will or commands. According to this view, God's commands determine what is right and wrong, and morality is dependent on God's existence. If God did not exist, then there would be no objective basis for morality. The second horn of the dilemma suggests that God commands something because it is morally good. This view implies that there is an objective standard of morality that exists independently of God's will. In other words, God recognizes what is morally good and commands us to follow it. This view is known as moral realism, which holds that moral truths exist independently of human opinion or belief. Critics of the divine command theory argue that it leads to a problematic conclusion: if something is morally good simply because God commands it, then anything could be considered morally good if God commanded it. For example, if God commanded us to kill innocent people, then killing innocent people would be considered morally good according to divine command theory. This seems to suggest that morality is arbitrary and dependent on God's whims rather than being grounded in any objective standard. On the other hand, critics of moral realism argue that it raises questions about the nature of morality itself. If there is an objective standard of morality that exists independently of God's will, then what is the source of this standard? Is it a natural law, or is it something else entirely? Furthermore, if there is an objective standard of morality, then why do different cultures and societies have different moral codes? This seems to suggest that morality is not as objective as moral realists claim.
The problem of anthropic argument The
anthropic argument is a philosophical and theological concept that argues that the universe and its physical laws are finely tuned to allow for the existence of life and, therefore, must have been designed by an intelligent creator. Proponents of this argument claim that the odds of the universe existing as it does by chance are so astronomically low that it is more reasonable to believe in a creator than not. However, opponents of the anthropic argument argue that it is flawed and does not necessarily prove the existence of God. One of the main criticisms of the anthropic argument is that it suffers from the fallacy of
selection bias. This is because proponents only consider the universe as it exists today, without taking into account all the other possible ways it could have existed. For example, if the physical laws were different, life as we know it may not have been possible, but that does not mean that some other form of life could not have existed under those conditions. Therefore, opponents argue that just because our universe allows for life does not necessarily mean that it was designed to do so. Another criticism of the anthropic argument is that it assumes that life is inherently valuable and important. Opponents argue that this is a subjective value judgment and cannot be used as evidence for the existence of God. Additionally, opponents point out that there are many aspects of the universe that are not conducive to life, such as
black holes or
supernovae, which could be seen as evidence against a benevolent creator. Furthermore, opponents argue that the anthropic argument is based on a flawed understanding of
probability. They claim that just because something is unlikely does not mean it is impossible, and therefore, low probabilities cannot be used as evidence for design. Additionally, opponents argue that probability calculations can only be made if all possible outcomes are known, which is impossible in the case of the universe. Opponents of the anthropic argument also point out that there are alternative explanations for the fine-tuning of the universe. Some scientists propose the
multiverse theory, which suggests that our universe is just one of many possible universes, each with its own set of physical laws. In this scenario, it is not surprising that we find ourselves in a universe that allows for life because we could not exist in any other type of universe. Other scientists suggest that the physical constants of the universe are not actually fixed but can vary over time, which could explain why our universe appears to be finely tuned for life.
Argument from the problem of miracles The problem of miracles is rooted in the concept of natural law, which assumes that the universe operates according to predictable and consistent laws. According to this view, any event that violates natural law, such as a miracle, cannot occur. Therefore, if a miracle is claimed to have occurred, it must be either a misunderstanding or a deliberate deception. One of the most prominent advocates of the problem of miracles was the Scottish philosopher David Hume. In his essay "
Of Miracles," Hume argued that it is always more reasonable to believe that someone is mistaken or lying than to accept that a miracle has occurred. He claimed that there is no amount of testimony or evidence that can prove a miracle beyond doubt because it always contradicts natural law. Hume's argument was based on his empiricist philosophy, which held that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and that claims about supernatural events are not supported by such experience.
The argument from the problem of religious experience This argument suggests that religious experiences are subjective and cannot be verified or falsified, making them unreliable as evidence for the existence of God. The argument from the problem of religious experience against God's existence can be formulated as follows: 1. Religious experiences are subjective and cannot be verified or falsified. 2. If religious experiences cannot be verified or falsified, then they are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God. 3. Therefore, religious experiences are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God. Premise 1 is based on the fact that religious experiences are personal and subjective. They are often described in terms of feelings, emotions, and sensations that are difficult to describe or measure objectively. For example, a person may claim to have had a mystical experience in which they felt a deep sense of unity with all things. However, this experience cannot be objectively measured or verified by others. It is purely subjective and exists only in the mind of the individual who had it. Premise 2 follows logically from premise 1. If religious experiences cannot be verified or falsified, then they cannot be used as evidence to support any particular belief about God's existence or nature. This is because there is no way to distinguish between genuine religious experiences and mere hallucinations or delusions. Without objective criteria for verifying or falsifying religious experiences, they remain purely subjective and cannot be used as evidence in any rational debate about the existence of God. Premise 3 is the conclusion that follows logically from premises 1 and 2. If religious experiences are unreliable as evidence for the existence of God, then they cannot be used to support any argument for the existence of God. This means that any argument that relies on religious experiences as evidence for God's existence is inherently flawed and cannot be taken seriously by those who demand objective evidence for their beliefs.
Argument from inconsistent revelations Argument from parsimony The argument from
parsimony (using
Occam's razor) contends that since natural (non-supernatural) theories adequately explain the
development of religion and belief in gods, the actual existence of such supernatural agents is superfluous and may be dismissed unless otherwise proven to be required to explain the phenomenon.
Argument from historical induction The argument from "historical induction" concludes that since most theistic religions throughout history (e.g.
ancient Egyptian religion,
ancient Greek religion) and their gods ultimately come to be regarded as untrue or incorrect, all theistic religions, including contemporary ones, are therefore most likely untrue/incorrect by induction.
H. L. Mencken wrote a short piece about the topic entitled "Memorial Service" in 1922. It is implied as part of Stephen F. Roberts' popular quotation: I contend that we are both atheists. I just believe in one fewer god than you do. When you understand why you dismiss all the other possible gods, you will understand why I dismiss yours.
Argument from nonbelief Arguments from the poor design of the universe The
problem of evil contests the existence of a god who is both omnipotent and
omnibenevolent by arguing that such a god should not permit the existence of
evil or
suffering. The theist responses are called
theodicies. Similarly, the
argument from poor design contends that an all-powerful, benevolent creator god would not have created lifeforms, including humans, which seem to exhibit poor design.
Richard Carrier has argued that the universe itself seems to be very ill-designed for life, because the vast majority of the space in the universe is utterly hostile to it. This is arguably unexpected on the hypothesis that the universe was designed by a god, especially a
personal god. Carrier contends that such a god could have easily created a
geocentric universe ex nihilo in
the recent past, in which most of the volume of the universe is inhabitable by humans and other lifeforms—precisely the kind of universe that most humans believed in until the
rise of modern science. While a personal god
might have created the kind of universe we observe, Carrier contends that this is not the kind of universe we would most
likely expect to see if such a god existed. He finally argues that, unlike theism, our observations about the nature of the universe are strongly expected on the hypothesis of atheism, since the universe would have to be vast, very old, and almost completely devoid of life if life were to have
arisen by sheer chance.
Subjective arguments Similar to the
subjective arguments for the existence of God, subjective arguments against God's existence mainly rely on the testimony or experience of witnesses, or the propositions of a revealed religion in general. • The witness argument gives credibility to personal witnesses, contemporary and from the past, who disbelieve or strongly doubt the existence of God. • The conflicted religions argument notes that many religions give differing accounts as to what God is and what God wants; since all the contradictory accounts cannot be correct, many if not all religions must be incorrect. • The disappointment argument claims that if, when asked for, there is no visible help from God, there is no reason to believe that there is a God.
Hindu arguments Atheistic Hindu doctrines cite various arguments for rejecting a creator God or
Ishvara. The
Samkhyapravachana Sutra of the
Samkhya school states that there is no philosophical place for a creator God in this system. It is also argued in this text that the existence of Ishvara (God) cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. For instance, it argues that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever-changing world. It says God is a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances. The Sutras of Samkhya endeavor to prove that the idea of God is inconceivable and self-contradictory, and some commentaries speak plainly on this subject. The
Sankhya- tattva-kaumudi, commenting on Karika 57, argues that a perfect God can have no need to create a world, and if God's motive is kindness, Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering. Samkhya postulates that a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not an imperfect world like the real world. According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God: • If the existence of
karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God. • Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in God. • Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self. • Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference. Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God. Proponents of the school of
Mimamsa, which is based on
rituals and
orthopraxy, decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God is insufficient. They argue that there is no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals. Mimamsa argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the
mantras that speak their names. In that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods. == Psychological aspects ==