Early Paleo-Inuit cultures In prehistoric times, Greenland was inhabited by several
Paleo-Inuit cultures, identified primarily through archaeological discoveries. The first known entry of the Paleo-Inuit into Greenland occurred around 2500 BC. From 2500 BC to 800 BC, the
Saqqaq culture thrived in southern and western Greenland, with most remains found near
Disko Bay. Simultaneously, the
Independence I culture existed in northern Greenland from 2400 BC to 1300 BC as part of the
Arctic small tool tradition, with settlements such as
Deltaterrasserne emerging. Around 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture disappeared, and the Early
Dorset culture emerged in western Greenland and the
Independence II culture in the north. The Dorset culture, the first to spread across Greenland's coastal regions in both the east and west, lasted until the
Thule culture's dominance by AD 1500. Dorset communities primarily relied on hunting
whales and
reindeer for sustenance.
Norse settlements , 1875 In 986,
Icelanders and
Norwegians, led by
Erik the Red with 14 boats, established settlements along Greenland's west coast. These settlements, the
Eastern,
Western, and
Middle Settlements, were located on fjords near the island's southwestern tip. At the time, the Norse settlers shared Greenland with the late Dorset culture in the northern and western regions and later with the Thule culture, which migrated from the north. In 1261, Norse Greenlanders came under Norwegian rule as part of the
Kingdom of Norway. Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1380, and Greenland subsequently became part of the
Kalmar Union in 1397. The Norse settlements, including
Brattahlíð, thrived for several centuries before disappearing in the 15th century, possibly due to the onset of the
Little Ice Age. Aside from a few runic inscriptions, the only surviving contemporary records of the Norse settlements are accounts of their contact with Iceland and Norway. Medieval Norwegian sagas and historical texts document aspects of Greenland's economy, the bishops of
Garðar, and the collection of
tithes. Additionally, the
Konungs skuggsjá (
Old Norse: "King's mirror") contains a chapter describing Norse Greenland's exports, imports, and attempts at grain cultivation. Icelandic sagas about life in Greenland were written in the 13th century or later and are not considered primary sources for early Norse Greenland; however, they are closer to primary sources for later Norse Greenland. Modern understanding of Norse Greenland relies primarily on archaeological evidence.
Ice-core and clam-shell data suggest that between AD 800 and 1300, southern Greenland's fjord regions experienced a relatively mild climate, several degrees warmer than usual for the North Atlantic. This allowed for the growth of trees and
herbaceous plants,
livestock farming, and
barley cultivation near the 70th parallel. Ice cores also reveal that Greenland has undergone significant temperature fluctuations over the past 100,000 years.
The Icelandic Book of Settlements also records harsh winters, with famines reportedly leading to the killing of "the old and helpless" which "were killed and thrown over cliffs". The decline of the Western Settlement coincided with a significant drop in both summer and winter temperatures. Research on North Atlantic temperature variability during the Little Ice Age indicates that maximum summer temperatures began to decrease around the early 14th century, dropping by as much as below modern summer averages. Additionally, the coldest winter temperatures in 2,000 years occurred during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Eastern Settlement is believed to have been abandoned in the early to mid-15th century, likely as a result of these harsh climatic conditions. church Archaeological excavations at
Herjolfsnes in the 1920s revealed evidence suggesting that the Norse population in Greenland may have experienced malnutrition. This could have been caused by
soil erosion, linked to the Norsemen's farming practices, turf-cutting, and deforestation, as well as a decline in temperatures during the Little Ice Age, the impact of
pandemic plagues, or conflicts with the (a Norse term for the Inuit, meaning "wretches" It is now believed that the settlements, never exceeding about 2,500 people, were gradually abandoned in the 15th century, partly due to the declining value of
walrus ivory, once a key export, amid competition from higher-quality sources. Evidence of widespread starvation or severe hardship remains limited.
Thule culture (1300–present) The Thule people are the ancestors of the modern Greenlandic population, with no genetic links to the Paleo-Inuit found in the current population. The Thule culture migrated eastward from present-day Alaska around 1000 AD, reaching Greenland by approximately 1300. They introduced significant technological advancements to the region, including
dog sleds and
toggling harpoons. There is an Inuit account of contact and conflict with the Norse settlers, republished in
The Norse Atlantic Sagas by Gwyn Jones. Jones notes a possible Norse account of the same event, though its authenticity is considered more uncertain.
1500–1814 In 1500, King
Manuel I of Portugal dispatched
Gaspar Corte-Real to Greenland to search for a
Northwest Passage to Asia, as the
Treaty of Tordesillas placed Greenland within Portugal's sphere of influence. In 1501, Gaspar returned with his brother
Miguel Corte-Real, but frozen seas forced them southward to
Labrador and
Newfoundland. Their cartographic findings contributed to the
Cantino planisphere, created in Lisbon in 1502, which accurately depicted Greenland's southern coastline. Greenland's connection to Denmark was disrupted on 9 April 1940, during
World War II, when Denmark was
occupied by
Nazi Germany. On 8 April 1941, the United States occupied Greenland to protect it from potential German invasion. The U.S. occupation lasted until the end of the war in 1945. During this time, Greenland traded
cryolite from the
Ivittuut mine to acquire goods from the U.S. and Canada. The U.S. military used as a codename for Greenland, establishing several bases, including
Bluie West-1 at
Narsarsuaq and
Bluie West-8 at
Kangerlussuaq, which remain major international airports today. During the war, Greenland's governance changed. Governor
Eske Brun assumed control under a 1925 Danish law allowing governors to act independently in extreme circumstances. Meanwhile, Governor Aksel Svane relocated to the U.S. to oversee Greenland's supply commission. The Danish
Sirius Patrol guarded northeastern Greenland, using dog sleds to detect German weather stations, which were subsequently destroyed by American forces. After Nazi Germany's collapse,
Albert Speer briefly considered escaping to Greenland but ultimately surrendered to the
United States Armed Forces. Before 1940, Greenland was a protected and isolated society under Denmark's trade monopoly, allowing limited
barter trade with British whalers. Wartime experiences fostered a sense of self-reliance, as Greenland managed its own governance and external communication. In 1946, the highest Greenlandic council, the Landsrådene, recommended gradual reform rather than radical changes. A commission initiated in 1948 presented its findings in 1950 (known as G-50), advocating for the development of a modern welfare state, modeled on Denmark's example with Danish support. In 1953, Greenland became an integral part of the Danish Kingdom, and in 1979, it was granted home rule.
Home rule (1945–present) The
American presence in Greenland introduced
Sears catalogs, enabling Greenlanders and Danes to purchase modern
home appliances and other goods by mail. From 1948 to 1950, the
Greenland Commission assessed the island's conditions, focusing on its isolation, unequal laws, and economic stagnation. This evaluation led to the abolition of the
Royal Greenland Trading Department's monopolies. In 1953, Greenland's status shifted from a colony to an
autonomous province within the Danish Realm. Greenland also gained its own
Danish county and, despite its small population, was granted representation in the
Danish Folketing (parliament). Denmark implemented reforms to urbanize Greenlanders, aiming to reduce dependence on declining seal populations and to provide labor for expanding cod fisheries. These reforms also sought to improve healthcare, education, and transportation. However, they introduced challenges such as modern unemployment and poorly planned housing projects, notably
Blok P. These European-style apartments proved impractical, with Inuit struggling to navigate narrow doors in winter clothing, and fire escapes often blocked by fishing equipment. Television broadcasts began in 1982, but economic hardships worsened after the collapse of cod fisheries and mines in the late 1980s and early 1990s, leaving Greenland reliant on Danish aid and shrimp exports. State-owned enterprises remain central to the economy. Subsidized companies like
Air Greenland and the
Arctic Umiaq ferry are essential for connecting remote communities. The primary airport is still the
former U.S. air base at
Kangerlussuaq, as Nuuk's
airport cannot accommodate international flights due to cost and noise limitations. Greenland's limited representation in the Folketing meant that despite 70.3% of its population opposing entry into the
European Economic Community, it was included along with Denmark in 1973. Concerns about the
customs union enabling foreign competition and
overfishing of Greenlandic waters were soon validated. The Folketing approved devolution in 1978, and
home rule was established under a local
Landsting the following year. On 23 February 1982, a slim majority (53%) of Greenlanders voted to withdraw from the EEC, a process finalized in 1985 with the
Greenland Treaty.
Greenland's Home Rule has increasingly embraced Greenlandic identity, with a focus on
Kalaallit language and culture, while distancing itself from Danish influence and regional dialects. In 1979, the capital, Godthåb, was renamed Nuuk. A local flag was introduced in 1985, and the Danish-owned KGH was replaced by the locally managed
Kalaallit Niuerfiat, now known as KNI A/S, in 1986. Following a
successful referendum on self-government in 2008, Greenland's parliament gained expanded powers, and in 2009, Danish was removed as an official language. Greenland's
international relations are mostly managed by its home rule government, though some matters remain under Danish oversight. As part of the agreement when Greenland exited the EEC, it was considered a "special case," retaining access to the European market through Denmark, which remains a member. with
Iceland, the
Faroe Islands, and Indigenous Inuit populations from
Canada and Russia. It was a founding member of the
Arctic Council in 1996, an environmental group. The presence of U.S. military bases, particularly the
Pituffik Space Base, continues to be a contentious issue, with some politicians advocating for a renegotiation of the 1951 US–Denmark treaty. The 1999–2003 Commission on Self-Governance even proposed that Greenland should seek to have the base removed from U.S. control and placed under international management, possibly through the
United Nations. In 2025, U.S. President
Donald Trump expressed interest in "
purchasing Greenland," prompting criticism from Greenlandic officials and citizens. In interviews aired by
Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa (KNR), some residents expressed concerns about cultural preservation and economic dependency. Greenland's leaders have also expressed criticism over an upcoming visit by a prominent American delegation, which Trump has previously suggested might be a candidate for annexation. == Demographics ==