Origins of the defence of the
Carroccio during the
battle of Legnano (1176), painted by
Amos Cassioli (1832–1891) The conflict between Guelphs and Ghibellines arose from the political divisions caused by the
Investiture Controversy, about whether secular rulers or the pope had the authority to appoint bishops and abbots. Upon the death of
Emperor Henry V, of the
Salian dynasty, the dukes elected an opponent of his dynasty,
Lothair III, as the new emperor. This displeased the house of
Hohenstaufen, who were allied with and related to the old dynasty. Out of fear of the Hohenstaufen, Lothair III placed himself under the pope's protection. To this end, he ceded all Imperial rights to the pope under Henry V's
Concordat of Worms. War then broke out in Germany between those who supported the Hohenstaufen, and those who were aligned to Lothair and the pope. Upon Lothair's death, the Hohenstaufen
Conrad III was elected, while Lothair's heir,
Henry the Proud, of the
House of Welf, continued fighting.
Guelph (often spelled
Guelf; in Italian
Guelfo, plural
Guelfi) is an
Italian form of the name of the
House of Welf, the family of the dukes of
Bavaria (including the namesake Duke
Welf II of Bavaria, as well as
Henry the Lion). The Welfs were said to have used the name as a rallying cry during the
Siege of Weinsberg in 1140, in which the rival
Hohenstaufens (led by Conrad III) used "Wibellingen" (the name of a castle today known as
Waiblingen, as their cry; "Wibellingen" subsequently became
Ghibellino in Italian). Thus, the Hohenstaufen faction became known as the Ghibellines and the Welfs eventually became known as the Guelphs. The Ghibellines were the imperial party, while the Guelphs supported the pope. Cities more directly threatened by the enlargement of the
Papal States tended to align with the Ghibelline faction, while the cities that wanted more autonomy from the Empire tended to belong to the Guelph faction. The clash between the municipalities of Northern Italy and imperial power originated in the
struggle for investitures. The Guelph
Lombard League defeated Emperor
Frederick Barbarossa at the
Battle of Legnano in 1176. Frederick recognized the full autonomy of the cities of the Lombard league under his nominal
suzerainty. The conflict between the two factions dominated the politics of medieval Italy, and persisted long after the confrontation between emperor and pope had ceased. Smaller cities tended to be Ghibelline if the larger city nearby was Guelph. For example, Guelph
Republic of Florence and Ghibelline
Republic of Siena faced off at the
Battle of Montaperti, 1260.
Pisa maintained a staunch Ghibelline stance against her fiercest rivals, the Guelph
Republic of Genoa and Florence. Local or regional political reasons motivated political alignments. Within cities, party allegiances differed from
guild to guild,
rione to
rione, and a city could easily change party after internal upheavals. The conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines ended in the 14th century with the creation of a new situation, where the State and the laity began to withdraw from any ecclesiastical interference.
13th–14th centuries At the beginning of the 13th century,
Philip of Swabia, a Hohenstaufen, and
Otto of Brunswick, a Welf, were
rivals for the imperial throne. Philip was supported by the Ghibellines as a son of Frederick I, while Otto was supported by the Guelphs. Although the Guelphs initially succeeded in getting Otto crowned as Emperor, Otto turned against the Papacy, was excommunicated, and was replaced with Philip's heir
Emperor Frederick II. Frederick II was an enemy of both Otto and the papacy, and during Frederick's reign, the Guelphs became more strictly associated with the papacy while the Ghibellines became supporters of the Empire and Frederick in particular.
Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Frederick II in 1227 for failing to go on Crusade, then again for going on the
Sixth Crusade (1228–1229) while excommunicated. While Frederick was in the
Crusader states, this division developed there, and his regent in Italy fought a
war with the Pope. That war was ended and the excommunication was lifted in 1230, but the hostility continued. In 1237, Frederick entered Italy with a large army, intending to subdue the defiant cities of the
Lombard League. Pope Gregory tried to broker a peace, but failed. Frederick
defeated the League at Cortenuova and refused all peace offers from them. He
besieged Brescia but was repulsed. In 1239, Frederick was again excommunicated by Pope Gregory. In response, he expelled
Franciscan and the
Dominican friars from Lombardy and made his son
Enzo Imperial vicar in Italy. He also annexed
Romagna,
Marche, the
Duchy of Spoleto, and part of the
Papal States, and marched through Tuscany hoping to capture
Rome. He was forced to retreat, sacking the city of
Benevento. Soon the Ghibelline city of
Ferrara fell and Frederick once more advanced, capturing
Ravenna and
Faenza. The Pope convened a council, but an Imperial-Pisan fleet defeated a Papal fleet carrying cardinals and prelates from Genoa in the
Battle of Giglio. Frederick approached Rome. Meanwhile, Pope Gregory died. Frederick withdrew his forces and freed two cardinals he had jailed in Capua. However, Frederick marched again against Rome throughout 1242 and 1243. and the
Kingdom of Sicily. A new pope –
Innocent IV – was elected. At first, Frederick was pleased with the election since Innocent had relatives in the Imperial camp. However, the new Pope immediately turned against Frederick. When the City of
Viterbo rebelled, the Pope backed the Guelphs. and Frederick immediately marched to Italy and besieged
Viterbo. The pope signed a peace treaty with the emperor, relieving the city. After the Emperor left, Cardinal
Raniero Capocci, leader of Viterbo, had the garrison massacred. The Pope made another treaty but he immediately broke it and continued to back the Guelphs. The Pope supported
Henry Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia as King of the Romans and soon plotted to have Frederick killed. After an attempted assassination failed, the pope fled to
Liguria. Soon the tide turned against the imperial party. The Lombard city of Parma rebelled. Enzo – who had not been present – asked his father for help. Frederick and
Ezzelino III da Romano, the Tyrant of Verona, laid siege to the city. The imperial camp was ambushed by the Guelphs and in the ensuing
Battle of Parma the imperial party was routed, losing much of their treasury. Frederick lost his momentum against the rebellious communes in the immediate future. Sensing this, Innocent began plans for a crusade against Sicily. Frederick soon recovered and rebuilt an army, but this defeat encouraged resistance in many cities that could no longer bear the fiscal burden of his regime: parts of the Romagna, Marche and Spoleto were lost. In May 1248, Frederick's illegitimate son Richard of
Chieti defeated a papal army led by Hugo Novellus near
Civitanova Marche and recaptured some areas of the Marche and Spoleto. Basing himself in Piedmont in June, Frederick hosted many nobles of northern Italy and ambassadors from foreign kings in his court, and his deposition, it seems, had not diminished his fame or preeminence. Nevertheless, it was only by strenuous, even unrelenting effort that Frederick was able to stabilize the situation by the close of 1248 and replenish his coffers, raising some 130,000 gold ounces. Frederick remained confident but after several years of war and conspiracy, he was increasingly suspicious and wearied. The Ghibellines were eventually defeated in the
Battle of Fossalta against the army of Bologna. Enzo was captured. Enzo was held in a palace in Bologna, where he remained captive until his death in 1272. Richard of Chieti was also killed in 1249, possibly in the same battle. Frederick named Manfred as Legate General of Italy to replace the now captive Enzo. The struggle continued: the Empire lost
Como and
Modena, but regained
Ravenna. From early 1250, the situation progressively favoured Frederick II. In the first month of the year, the indomitable Ranieri of Viterbo died, depriving pro-papal leadership in Italy of an implacable foe of Frederick. An army sent to invade the Kingdom of Sicily under the command of Cardinal Pietro Capocci was crushed in the Marche at the
Battle of Cingoli and Imperial
condottieri again reconquered the Romagna, the Marche and Spoleto.
Conrad, King of the Romans, scored several victories in Germany against William of Holland and forced the pro-papal Rhenish archbishops to sign a truce. Innocent IV was increasingly isolated as support for the papal cause dwindled rapidly in Germany, Italy, and across Europe generally. Frederick of Antioch had relatively stabilized Tuscany as imperial vicar and podestà of Florence. Piacenza changed allegiances to Frederick and
Oberto Pallavicino, Imperial vicar of Lombardy, recaptured Parma and a swathe of central Lombardy. Ezzelino da Romano held Verona, Vicenza, Padua and the
Trevisan March along with most of eastern Lombardy. Only Milan, Brescia, Modena, Mantua, Ferrara, and Bologna held out. Genoa was threatened by Frederick's allies and Venice's support for Innocent and the League waned. Even with imperial prospects brightening however, areas of Italy had been ravaged by years of war and even the resources of the wealthy and prosperous Kingdom of Sicily were strained. Frederick's unified regime in Italy and Sicily was despotic and brutal, imposing harsh taxes and ruthlessly suppressing dissent. Nevertheless, that his administrative system consistently recovered in the face of reversals remains an impressive feat. Frederick, however, did not take part in any of the campaigns of 1250. He had been ill and likely felt tired, withdrawing to the Kingdom of Sicily where he remained for much of the year. Suddenly on 13 December 1250, however, after a persistent attack of dysentery, Frederick died in
Castel Fiorentino (territory of
Torremaggiore), in
Apulia. Despite the betrayals, setbacks, and flux of fortune he had faced in his last years, Frederick died peacefully, reportedly wearing the habit of a
Cistercian monk. Of his father's death, Manfred wrote to Conrad in Germany, "The sun of justice has set, the maker of peace has passed away." At the time of Frederick's death, his preeminent position in Europe was challenged but certainly not lost. The political situation remained fluid and the victories of 1250 had put Frederick seemingly in the ascendant once again. Everywhere Innocent IV's fortunes seemed dire: the papal treasury was depleted, his anti-king William of Holland had been defeated by Conrad in Germany and forced to submit while no other European monarch proved willing to offer much support for fear of Frederick's ire. In Italy, Frederick's lieutenants and partisans had recaptured much of the territories lost in the last two years; he was in a strong position and he prepared to march on Lyon in the new year. Despite the economic strains placed on the
Regno, support from the Emperor of Nicaea,
John III Doukas Vatatzes, enabled Frederick to relatively refill his coffers and resupply his forces. After the failure of Louis IX's crusade in Egypt, Frederick had skillfully imaged himself as the aggrieved party against the papacy, hindered by Innocent's machinations from supporting the campaign. Frederick won growing support on the wider diplomatic stage. Only his death halted this momentum. His testament left Conrad the Imperial and Sicilian crowns. Manfred received the principality of
Taranto, 100,000 gold ounces, and regency over Sicily and Italy while his half-brother remained in Germany. Henry Charles Otto, Frederick's son by Isabella of England, received 100,000 gold ounces and the
Kingdom of Arles or that of
Jerusalem, while the son of
Henry VII was entrusted with the Duchy of Austria and the
March of Styria. Perhaps aiming to lay stones for a potential peace settlement between Conrad and Innocent—or a final crafty scheme to further demonstrate papal prejudice against him, Frederick's will stipulated that all the lands he had taken from the Church were to be returned to it, all the prisoners freed, and the taxes reduced, provided this did not damage the Empire's prestige. In peacefully passing on his realms to his sons Frederick accomplished perhaps the main goal of any ruler. At his death, the Hohenstaufen empire remained the leading power in Europe and its security seemed assured in the persons of his sons. , workshop of
Pacino di Buonaguida After the death of Frederick II in 1250, the Ghibellines were supported by Conrad IV and later King
Manfred of Sicily. The Guelphs were supported by
Charles I of Naples. Local families like
Fieschi and
Grimaldi usually sided with the Guelph party, in conflict with the
Doria and some branches of the
Spinola families. While
Genoa was often under Guelph rule in the early years of the 13th century, in 1270, Ghibellines
Oberto Spinola and
Oberto Doria revolted against the Guelphs and established a separate government which lasted a couple of decades. Guelph families fled to their strongholds east (Fieschi) and west (Grimaldi). They were forced to cease their resistance after several military campaigns: they were again accepted in the city's political life, after paying war expenses.
White and Black Guelphs on a fresco in
San Gimignano After the Tuscan Guelphs finally defeated the Ghibellines in 1289 at the
Battle of Campaldino and at
Vicopisano, the Guelphs began infighting. By 1300, the Florentine Guelphs had divided into the Black and White Guelphs. The Blacks continued to support the Papacy, while the Whites were opposed to Papal influence, specifically the influence of
Pope Boniface VIII.
Dante was among the supporters of the White Guelphs. In 1302 he was exiled when the Black Guelphs took control of Florence. Those who were not connected to either side or who had no connections to either Guelphs or Ghibellines considered both factions unworthy of support but were still affected by changes of power in their respective cities. Emperor
Henry VII was disgusted by supporters of both sides when he visited Italy in 1310. In 1325, the city-states of Guelph
Bologna and Ghibelline
Modena clashed in the
War of the Bucket, resulting in Modena's victory at the
Battle of Zappolino, which led to a resurgence of Ghibelline fortunes. In 1334,
Pope Benedict XII threatened people who used either the Guelph or Ghibelline name with
excommunication.
Later history was signed The term Ghibelline continued to indicate allegiance to the declining Imperial authority in Italy, and saw a brief resurgence during the Italian campaigns of Emperors
Henry VII (1310) and
Louis IV (1327). Since the Pope granted
Sicily (Southern Italy) to the French prince
Charles I of Anjou, the Guelphs took a pro-French stance. As late as the 16th century, Ghibellines like the Colonna or Gonzaga still fought for
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, while Guelphs like the
Orsini and Este still fought for the French. During the French-dominated
Avignon Papacy,
Pope John XXII, who supported the French-allied King
John of Bohemia, excommunicated John's rival Emperor Louis IV in 1324 and threatened heresy charges against the Ghibellines. The Ghibellines then supported Louis' invasion of Italy and coronation as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. The conflict over Naples broke out again when it was
conquered by Aragon in 1442 and remained fought over between the
Habsburgs and
Bourbons until the Bourbons gained control for good following
War of the Polish Succession in 1735. In
Milan, the Guelphs and Ghibellines cooperated in the creation of the
Golden Ambrosian Republic in 1447. However, over the next few years they engaged in intense disputes. After the initial leadership of the Ghibellines, the Guelphs seized power at the election of the Captains and Defenders of the Liberty of Milan. The Guelph government became increasingly autocratic, leading to a Ghibelline conspiracy led by Giorgio Lampugnino and Teodoro Bossi. It failed, and many Ghibellines were massacred in 1449. Others fled, including the prominent Ghibelline
Vitaliano I Borromeo, who was sheltered in his
County of Arona. Public opinion turned against the Guelphs. In the next elections the Ghibellines were briefly victorious, but were deposed after imprisoning Guelph leaders Giovanni Appiani and Giovanni Ossona. In the 15th century, the Guelphs supported
Charles VIII of France during his invasion of Italy at the start of the
Italian Wars, while the Ghibellines were supporters of the emperor
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Cities and families used the names until
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, consolidated the imperial power over Italy in 1529. In the course of the Italian Wars of 1494 to 1559, the political landscape changed radically and the division between Guelphs and Ghibellines became irrelevant. This became evident with the election of
Pope Paul V (1605), the first to bear the "Ghibelline" in
chief on his
Papal coat of arms.
Modern aftermath in
Florence On 25 March 2015, the
Parte Guelfa was reconstituted as a Christian order and
archconfraternity to serve the
Catholic Church and the Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, guided by the Captain-General Andrea Claudio Galluzzo under the custody of Consul Luciano Artusi. The Mayor of
Florence established the headquarters of the reborn Guelph Party in the historic
Palazzo di Parte Guelfa in the city. ==Allegiance of the main Italian cities==