12th century The newly independent Florence prospered in the 12th century through extensive trade with foreign countries. This, in turn, provided a platform for the demographic growth of the city, which mirrored the rate of construction of churches and
palazzi. This prosperity was shattered when Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa invaded the Italian peninsula in 1185. As a result, the margraves of Tuscany reacquired Florence and its townlands. The Florentines reasserted their independence when
Emperor Henry VI died in 1197. The Guelphs lost the reins of power after Florence suffered a catastrophic defeat at the
Battle of Montaperti against
Siena in 1260. The Ghibellines resumed power and undid many of the advances of the Guelphs, for example the demolition of hundreds of towers, homes, and palaces. The fragility of their rule caused the Ghibellines to seek out an arbitrator in the form of Pope
Clement IV, who openly favoured the Guelphs, and restored them to power. The Florentine economy reached a zenith in the latter half of the 13th century, and its success was reflected by the building of the famed
Palazzo della Signoria, designed by
Arnolfo di Cambio. The Florentine townlands were divided into administrative districts in 1292. In 1293, the
Ordinances of Justice were enacted, which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by
townhouses built by the ever prospering merchant class. The second war started in March 1397. Milanese troops devastated the Florentine
contado, but were checked in August of that year. The war expenses exceeded one million florins and necessitated tax raises and forced loans. A peace agreement in May 1398 was brokered by Venice, but left the struggle unresolved. Over the next two years Florentine control of Tuscany and Umbria collapsed.
Pisa and
Siena as well as a number of smaller cities submitted to Gian Galeazzo, while
Lucca withdrew from the anti-Visconti league, with
Bologna remaining the only major ally. In November 1400 a conspiracy involving both exiles and internal opponents was uncovered. Two
Ricci were implicated as leaders of a plot to eliminate the regime's inner circle and open the gates to the Milanese. Confessions indicated that the plan had wide support among the elites, including a
Medici and several of the
Alberti. The republic bankrolled the emperor-elect
Rupert. However, he was defeated by the Milanese in the fall of 1401. Visconti then turned to Bologna. On 26 June 1402, combined Bolognese-Florentine forces were routed at
Casalecchio, near Bologna, which was taken on the 30th. The road to Tuscany was open. However, Florence was saved after an outbreak of
plague had spread from Tuscany to Emilia and Lombardy:
Gian Galeazzo died from it on 3 September 1402. The Milan-Florence alliance played a major role in stabilizing the peninsula for the next 40 years. The political crisis of 1458 was the first serious challenge to the Medici rule. The cost of wars had been borne by the great families of Florence, and disproportionately so by Medici's opponents. A number of them (Serragli, Baroncelli, Mancini, Vespucci, Gianni) were practically ruined and had to sell their properties, and those were acquired by Medici's partisans at bargain prices. The opposition used partial relaxation of Medici control of the republic institutions to demand political reforms, freedom of speech in the councils and a greater share in the decision-making. Medici's party response was to use threats of force from private armies and Milanese troops and arranging a popular assembly dominated by Cosimo's supporters. It exiled the opponents of the regime and introduced the open vote in councils, "in order to unmask the anti-Medician rebels". Savonarola's rule collapsed a year later. He was excommunicated by Pope
Alexander VI in late 1497. In the same year, Florence embarked on a war with
Pisa, which had been
de facto independent since
Charles VIII's invasion three years before. The endeavour failed miserably, and this led to food shortages. That, in turn, led to a few isolated cases of the plague. The people blamed Savonarola for their woes, and he was tortured and executed in the
Piazza della Signoria by being burned at the stake by Florentine authorities, in May 1498.
16th century Piero Soderini In 1502, the Florentines chose
Piero Soderini as their first ruler for life. Soderini succeeded where Savonarola had failed, when the Secretary of War,
Niccolò Machiavelli, recaptured Pisa in 1509. It was at this time that Machiavelli introduced a standing army in Florence, replacing the traditional use of hired mercenaries.
Giovanni de' Medici Soderini was repudiated in September 1512, when
Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici captured Florence with Papal troops during the
War of the League of Cambrai. The Medici rule of Florence was thus restored. Soon after retaking Florence, Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici was recalled to Rome. Pope
Julius II had just died, and he needed to be present for the ensuing
Papal conclave. Giovanni was elected Pope, taking the name Leo X. This effectively brought the
Papal States and Florence into a political union. Leo X ruled Florence by proxy, first appointing his brother
Giuliano de' Medici to rule in his stead, and then in 1516, replacing Giuliano with his nephew,
Lorenzo II de' Medici. Lorenzo II's government proved unpopular in Florence.
Giulio de' Medici Following the death of Lorenzo II,
Cardinal Giulio de' Medici governed Florence until 1523, when he was elected Pope Clement VII. U.S.
President John Adams later characterized his administration of Florence as "very successful and frugal." In May 1527, Rome was sacked by the Holy Roman Empire. The city was destroyed, and Pope Clement VII was imprisoned. During the tumult, a faction of Republicans drove out the Medici from Florence. A new wave of Puritanism swept through the city. Many new restricting fundamentalist laws were passed. In 1529, Clement VII signed the Treaty of Barcelona with
Charles V, under which Charles would, in exchange for the Pope's blessing, invade Florence and restore the Medici. They were restored after
a protracted siege.
"Dukes of the Republic of Florence" Following the Republic's surrender in the
Siege of Florence,
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issued a proclamation explicitly stating that he and he alone could determine the government of Florence. On 12 August 1530, the Emperor created the Medici hereditary rulers (
capo) of the
Republic of Florence. The title "
Duke of the Florentine Republic" was chosen because it would bolster Medici power in the region.
Alessandro de' Medici Pope Clement VII intended his relative
Alessandro de' Medici to be the ruler of Florence, but also wanted to give the impression that the Florentines had democratically chosen Alessandro as their ruler. Even after Alessandro's accession in 1530 (he reigned as Duke of the Florentine Republic from 1532 on), Imperial troops remained stationed in Florence. In 1535, several prominent Florentine families, including the
Pazzi (who attempted to kill
Lorenzo de' Medici in the
Pazzi Conspiracy) dispatched a delegation under
Ippolito de' Medici, asking Charles V to depose Alessandro. Much to their dismay, the Emperor rejected their appeal. Charles had no intention of deposing Alessandro, who was married to Charles' daughter
Margaret of Parma. Alessandro continued to rule Florence for another two years until he was murdered on 1 January 1537 by his distant relative
Lorenzino de' Medici.
Cosimo I de' Medici As Alessandro left no legitimate issue, the question of succession was open. Florentine authorities selected
Cosimo I in 1537. At the news of this, the exiled Strozzi family invaded and tried to depose Cosimo, but were defeated at Montemurlo. Cosimo completely overhauled the bureaucracy and administration of Florence. In 1542, the Imperial troops stationed in Florence by Charles V were withdrawn. In 1548, Cosimo was given a part of the
Island of Elba by Charles V, and based his new developing navy there. Cosimo founded the port city of
Livorno and allowed the city's inhabitants to enjoy freedom of religion. In alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, Cosimo defeated the
Republic of Siena, which was allied with France, in the
Battle of Marciano on 2 August 1554. On 17 April 1555, Florence and Spain occupied the territory of Siena, which, in July 1557
Philip II of Spain bestowed on Cosimo as a hereditary fiefdom. The ducal family moved into the
Palazzo Pitti in 1560. Cosimo commissioned the architect
Vasari to build the
Uffizi, as offices for the Medici bank, continuing the Medici tradition of patronage of the arts.
End of the Republic In 1569, Cosimo was elevated to the rank of the
Grand Duke of Tuscany by Pope
Pius V. This marks the end of the Florence Republic, and the beginning of the
Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Medici rule continued into the Grand Duchy of Tuscany until the family became extinct in 1737. ==Administrations of the Republic==