History in
Tokyo , Japan The inhabitants of Japan have eaten fugu for centuries. Fugu bones have been found in several
shell middens, called
kaizuka, from the
Jōmon period that date back more than 2,300 years. The
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) prohibited the consumption of fugu in
Edo and its area of influence. It became common again as the power of the
Shōgunate weakened. In western regions of Japan, where the government's influence was weaker and fugu was easier to obtain, various cooking methods were developed to safely eat them. During the
Meiji Era (1867–1912), fugu was again banned in many areas. According to one fugu chef in Tokyo, the
Emperor of Japan has never eaten fugu due to an unspecified "centuries old ban". In China, the use of the pufferfish for culinary purposes was already well-established by the
Song dynasty as one of the "three delicacies of the Yangtze" (), alongside
saury and
Reeve's shad, and appears in the writings of the polymath
Shen Kuo as well as in the encyclopedic work
Taiping Guangji. The scholar-statesman
Su Shi famously remarked that the taste is worthy of death (). In 1774
James Cook during
his second voyage, together with
Johann Reinhold Forster and
Georg Forster, ate some liver of a fish bartered from a native of an island in
New Caledonia, likely a pufferfish. All three suffered symptoms of poisoning but survived.
Species The
torafugu, or tiger pufferfish (
Takifugu rubripes), is the most prestigious edible species and the most poisonous. Other species are also eaten; for example,
Higanfugu (
T. pardalis),
Shōsaifugu (
T. vermicularis syn.
snyderi), and
Mafugu (
T. porphyreus). The
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan provides a list that shows which species' body parts can be consumed. The list names safe
genera including
pufferfish of the
Lagocephalus and
Sphoeroides genera and the related
porcupinefish (
Harisenbon) of the family
Diodontidae.
Regulations Japan Strict fishing regulations are now in place to protect fugu populations from depletion. Most fugu is now harvested in the spring during the
spawning season and then farmed in floating cages in the
Pacific Ocean. The largest wholesale fugu market in Japan is in
Shimonoseki. Fugu prices rise in autumn and peak in winter, the best season, because they fatten to survive the cold. Live fish arrive at a restaurant, surviving in a large tank, usually prominently displayed. Prepared fugu is also often available in grocery stores, which must display official license documents. Whole fish may not be sold to the general public. Since 1958, fugu chefs must earn a license to prepare and sell fugu to the public. This involves a two- or three-year apprenticeship. The licensing examination process consists of a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test, preparing and eating the fish. Only about 35 percent of the applicants pass. Small miscalculations result in failure or, in rare cases, death. Consumers believe that this training process makes it safer to eat fugu in restaurants or markets. Non-poisonous fugu can be produced by keeping the fish away from the bacteria that makes them poisonous. The
Saga Prefecture in Japan has petitioned the Food Safety Commission of Japan three times to reconsider its ban on fugu liver, stating that its farmed fugu is non-toxic. The FSCJ has rejected the proposals thrice due to "data insufficient to prove safety". NYT reported in 2008 that there is a well-known underground
fugu-kimo scene in another Japanese town,
Usuki, Ōita. After 1948, the
Government of Korea restricted the cooking of fugu, and qualifications for who can cook fugu were established. Fugu chefs must be qualified if they are hired by a restaurant or open their own. The qualification exam contains both a written and a practical test. The written portion covers the
Fugu's poison, hygiene, basic food safety, and of
Korean cuisine. The practical test allows chefs fifty-six minutes to remove the poisonous parts of fugu and prepare
raw fish,
bulgogi, and soup. The qualifying score is 60 out of 100.
China China began issuing trial permits for serving fugu to restaurants in 2003. In 2016, the Chinese government abolished the permit system and allowed all restaurants to buy and serve farmed fish (without organs), now widely available. By 2019, such restaurants have become commonplace. China also allowed ordinary households to buy processed (organ-removed) whole fish online starting in 2017.
Cost In the case of
torafugu, the most common fugu, the cost is between JP¥1000–JP¥4000 (US$7–29) per kilogram, depending on the season and quality, as of 2022. The expense encourages chefs to slice the fish very carefully to obtain the largest possible amount of meat. A special knife, called
fugu hiki, is usually stored separately from other knives. In China, packaged farmed fugu cost CN¥330 (US$50) per kilogram . There is no known
antidote, and treatment consists of emptying the stomach, administering
activated charcoal to bind the toxin, and putting the person on
life support until the poison has worn off.
Toxicologists have been working for years on developing an antidote for tetrodotoxin.
Incidents Between 1996 and 2006, statistics from the Tokyo Bureau of Social Welfare and Public Health indicate 20–44 annual incidents of
fugu poisoning in Japan, some affecting multiple diners. Annually, 34–64 people were hospitalized and 0–6 died, with an average fatality rate of 6.8% of those hospitalized. Of the 23 incidents reported in Tokyo from 1993 through 2006, only one took place in a restaurant; all others involved people catching and eating the fish. Much higher figures were reported in earlier years, peaking in 1958 when 176 people died from eating fugu in a single year. the sale of which was prohibited by local ordinances at the time. Bandō claimed to be able to resist the poison, In March 2008, a fisherman in the Philippines died and members of his family became ill from pufferfish. The previous year, four people in the same town died and five others had fallen ill after eating the same variety of pufferfish. In February 2009, a Malaysian fisherman died and four others were hospitalized after they consumed a meal of pufferfish when they ran out of food while at sea. In November 2011, a chef of two-
Michelin star "Fugu Fukuji" in Tokyo was suspended from his post. The chef served fugu liver to a customer who, despite being warned of the risks, specifically asked that it be provided. The 35-year-old customer subsequently required hospital treatment for mild symptoms of tetrodotoxin paralysis, but made a full recovery. Five men were poisoned at a restaurant in
Wakayama in March 2015 after specifically asking for liver. In December 2020, 3 people in the Philippines died, while 4 more were hospitalized after eating pufferfish. In March 2023, an elderly woman and her husband in Malaysia died after consuming pufferfish purchased from a fishmonger. In January 2024, a Brazilian man, 46, died after eating pufferfish given to him by a friend. ==Preparations==