Hammadid dynasty

Establishment From its founding until the death of Prince Muhsin ibn Qa'id, the Hammadid state encompassed the following cities and regions: : Qal'at Bani Hammad, Msila, Tobna, Mzab, Ashir, Tiaret, Mers El Hadjadj, Balad al-Zawawa, Magra, Dakama, Balzma, and Souk Hamza. During the reign of Buluggin ibn Muhammad, the city of Fez in the far west of Morocco came under Hammadid rule. In 987 and 989, al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, the emir of the Berber Zirid dynasty, appointed his uncle Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of Ashir and western Zirid lands. Hammad subsequently defended the territory against Zenata incursions and was granted additional lands by al-Mansur's successor Badis ibn Mansur. In 1007 and 1008, forces under Hammad left Ashir and built a new citadel-capital, Qal'at Bani Hammad (also called ''Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad''), in M'Sila Province in the Hodna Mountains; a thriving city sprang up around the fortress. In 1014, Hammad declared his independence from Zirid suzerainty and switched his spiritual allegiance from the Shi'a Fatimid caliphs to the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The Zirids failed to quash the rebellion and recognized Hammadid legitimacy in 1017, in a peace with al-Mu'izz that was sealed by Hammad's son and successor Qaid ibn Hammad (). Al-Mu'izz subsequently also broke with the Fatimids and changed his allegiance to the Abbasids. The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir, sent Bedouin Arab allies, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, into a mass migration and invasion of the lands in what is now Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, culminating in al-Mu'izz's defeat in 1053 and the subsequent reduction of the Zirids to a small, insignificant territory based in Mahdia. A common pattern was for Hammadids and Zirids to support "rival coalitions of Arab tribes to fight their proxy wars." The Hammidid–Zirid rivalry also influenced the choice of which caliph to recognize; historian Amar S. Baadj writes, "It would appear that the principle which the Hammadids followed in the course of their relations with Baghdad and Cairo was that of opposing the Zirids. Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other." Apogee Buluggin ibn Muhammad (r. 1055–1062), a subsequent Hammadid ruler, invaded northern Morocco in 1062 and briefly took Fez for a few months, but was then assassinated by his paternal cousin An-Nasir ibn Alnas, who succeeded him as emir. The Hammadid dynasty peaked during al-Nasir's reign. At the request of local shaykhs, he was also able to install a loyal governor in Tunis until 1067. In the 11th century, the Hammadids came under increasing pressure from the Banu Hilal, who had settled in the Plains of Constantine and increasingly threatened Qal'at Bani Hammad. Renamed al-Nasiriya to honor the emir, Béjaïa developed into a sophisticated trading city; under al-Nasir and his son and successor al-Mansur ibn Nasir, large gardens, palaces, a Great Mosque, and other landmarks were constructed in the town. In Béjaïa Fibonacci was introduced to the Arabic numerical system and computational method; he later introduced this numerical system to Europe. He was also introduced to a book of algebra written by al-Khwarizmi. Decline In 1103–1104 the Hammadids defeated the Almoravids and took control of Tlemcen. During the reign of al-Mansur's son Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur (r. 1105–1121), Béjaïa had about 100,000 people, and the Hammadids consolidated their power in the city. The dynasty suffered a decline after this point; efforts to develop more sea power in the Mediterranean were foiled by the Normans, who by the 12th century had conquered Sicily and had also occupied a number of settlements on the coast of Tunisia and Algeria. However, Abd al-Aziz did expel the Hilalians from Hodna and capture Jerba. Yahya tried to establish good relations with the Fatimids in the early 1140s, but ultimately he recognized the Abbasids instead and minted coins in al-Muqtafi's name. Yahya fled to Constantine, but surrendered several months later, on 10 November 1152 (10 Sha'ban 547 AH). He died in comfortable exile in Salé, Morocco, in 1163. Abd al-Mu'min enslaved the women and children of Hammadid loyalists who had fought against him, but did not sack Béjaïa because the city had surrendered. Some 30 years after the collapse of the Hammadids, the dynasty had a brief revival in 1184, when 'Ali ibn Ghaniya—a member of the Banu Ghaniya branch of the Almoravid dynasty, which had established a corsair kingdom in the Balearic Islands—seized control of Béjaïa, recruited a mixed force of "dispossessed Hammadids, Sanhaja Berbers, and Hilalian tribes" opposed to Almohad rule, and quickly captured Algiers, Miliana, Ashir, and al Qal'a, with the goal of establishing a new Almoravid polity in the Maghreb. Less than a year later, the Almohad had recaptured all the towns. The Banu Ghaniya did retain, through the end of the Almohad period, some influence in Tripolitania, southern Tunisia, and the Algerian plains, where Hammadid loyalists numbered among their allies. == Territories ==

The Hammadid domain stretched across the entirety of the Central Maghreb and western regions of Ifriqiya (Constantinois), comprising the northern expanse of what is now Algeria. At its establishment during Hammad's reign, a pact was forged with his cousin Badis, stipulating that Hammad would retain authority over a substantial swath of the Central Maghreb (Algeria). This encompassed pivotal cities such as M'sila, Achir, and Tahert, alongside the territories of Tobna and Zab, as well as any lands annexed through his conquests. The kingdom's territories quickly expanded. Following Hammad's death, his son Sultan El Qaid ascended to power, and in 1038, a war erupted against the ruler of Fes. The latter swiftly backtracked and declared submission to the Hammadids. At the same time, the governor of Biskra revolted against the Hammadids, but the rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and he was replaced. The influence of the Hammadids extended into Ifriqiya (Tunisia), although the latter quickly emancipated itself from Hammadid influence. The cities of Sousse and Tripoli also submitted to Al Nacer. His successor Al Mansur later fought the Almoravids in the west, who continued to raid Hammadid territories. He gathered over 20,000 fighters and marched on Tlemcen, == Administration ==

The governmental structure represented an Islamic absolute monarchy, where the head of state held the title of Emir or Sultan They did recognize the spiritual authority of the Fatimid Caliphate at first until the arrival of the Banu Hilal tribes, and then the Abbasid Caliphate at different times. Each city had a judge appointed by the Hammadid Emirs who was responsible for the affairs of Muslims, Next to the Diwan al-Insha, the Hammadids had the Diwan al-Bareed (from ), as the emir needed to correspond with other sultans, kings, and caliphs. The communication system was advanced during the era of the emirate, and mountain fire signals were built, His second brother Ruman was assigned the governorship of Hamza (Bouira). The city of Constantine was given to his third brother Balbar, and N'Gaous to his fourth brother Khazar. He also entrusted his son Ibn el Alaa with the governance of Algiers and Mers el Dejaj while his other son Yusuf with that of Achir. Alongside these provinces, there were regions within the kingdom whose governance was assigned to other emirs, such as the region of Tozeur, which was given by Al Nacer to Yusuf ibn Makhluf. During this period, Tunis was under the governance of the Banu Khurasan, and Biskra under the Banu Ruman and later the Banu Sindi, both subject to Sultan Al Nacer. The city of Sfax was assigned to Hammu Ibn Malil. Al Nacer also had a governor in Ouargla whose name is not known. ==Art and architecture==

Architecture Qal'at Beni Hammad, the dynasty's capital, was described by Al-Bakri in the 11th century as a large and powerful military stronghold and a centre of commerce that attracted caravans from all over the Maghreb, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and the Hejaz. 14th-century Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun noted that the abundance of travellers was due to the wealth of resources offered to those interested in sciences, commerce and arts. The Qal'at attracted poets, sages and theologians. It was filled with various richly decorated palaces, caravanserai, gardens and what remained the largest mosque built in North Africa until the twentieth century. The art and architecture of the Hammadids influenced that of the Arabs, Almohads, Almoravids and Normans. The Hammadid mosque is said to have been the largest mosque constructed in North Africa prior to the twentieth century; it has the typical Maghreb-style square minaret. Architecture in Qal'at Bani Hammad featured adornments of "porcelain mosaics of many-colored faience, sculpted panels and plaster, enameled terra-cotta stalactites; building and pottery ornamentation consisted of geometric designs and stylized floral motifs." According to Lucien Golvin the fragments of the muqarnas semi-dome at the Qasr al-Salam are the oldest documented remains of a true muqarnas vault in the Islamic world. However, other scholars of Islamic architecture have questioned or rejected the dating of these fragments or their identification as true muqarnas. Furthermore, the Qal'at buildings are considered to be documented antecedents and precursors to certain developments in Western Islamic art in the 12th century. Art The excavations in the Qal'at Beni Hammad also discovered the first reference corpus of Islamic ceramics. The technique of luster-painting on pottery was passed from al Qal-at to Béjaïa to Malaga, and black painted and incised earthenware objects as well as bronze sculptures from the Zirids most likely influenced similar objects in Andalusia. The art of the Hammadid capital included the use of zellij. The Almohads are credited with transferring the art of zellij from the central Maghreb to Morocco where the minaret of the Kutubiyya mosque bears tiles with a similar design as those found in the pavements of the courtyard of the Hammadid Al-Manar palace. The earliest documented example of the alicatado technique was identified on star and cross shaped lustre specimens from the Qal’at of Beni Hammad. Architectural ceramics such as alicatado panels and cuerda seca tiles were central to the appearance of civic and religious buildings. Al-Nasir reputedly negotiated with Pope Gregory VII for the services of Italian masons and other skilled craftsmen for the construction of Béjaïa. The Bab al-Bahr (gate of the sea) was built during an-Nasirs reign, along with five other gates, to protect the town. It is now a ruin consisted of a pointed arch constructed with solid bricks. The Bab al-Bunud was also built in Béjaïa during an-Nasirs reign with hexagonal towers and two ogival-arch gates. In Béjaïa drawings of a facade of two palaces with ground plans by one of the Hammadids have been preserved and provide an insight into palatial architecture of the time period of the Hammadids. The first palace consisted of a huge domed hall flanked by smaller domed towers and chambers. The second palace, called al-Kukab, as said to have been where the Bordj Moussa is today. al-Kukab consisted of a large centred hall with a gabled roof flanked by side aisles and two small towers. The Great Mosque of Constantine was originally constructed by the Hammadids in the 12th century and was built on the ruins of a Roman temple. ==List of rulers==

The following is a list of Hammadid rulers, starting at Hammadid independence from the Zirids in 1015 and ending with the Almohad conquest in 1152: ==See also==