Boston Clinton, along with Major Generals
William Howe and
John Burgoyne, was sent with reinforcements to strengthen the position of General
Thomas Gage in
Boston. They arrived on 25 May, having learned en route that the
American War of Independence had broken out, and that
Boston was under siege. Gage, along with Clinton and Generals Howe and Burgoyne discussed plans to break the siege. Clinton was an advocate for fortifying currently unoccupied high ground surrounding Boston, and plans were laid to occupy those spots on 18 June. However, the colonists learned of the plan and fortified the heights of the Charlestown peninsula on the night of 16–17 June, forcing the British leadership to rethink their strategy. 's
The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Clinton is in the center background, bareheaded and holding a sword. In a war council held early on 17 June, the generals developed a plan calling for a direct assault on the colonial fortification, and Gage gave Howe command of the operation. Despite a sense of urgency (the colonists were still working on the fortifications at the time of the council),
the attack did not begin until that afternoon. Clinton was assigned the role of providing reserve forces when requested by Howe. After two assaults failed, Clinton, operating against his orders from General Gage, crossed over to Charlestown to organize wounded and dispirited troops milling around the landing area. The battle was a victory for the British, but only at the heavy cost of over 1,000 casualties. Clinton famously wrote of the battle that it was "A dear bought victory, another such would have ruined us." For the remainder of 1775 the siege became little more than a standoff, with the sides either unwilling or unable to mount an effective attack on the other. After Howe took command of the forces following General Gage's recall in September, the two of them established a working relationship that started out well, but did not take long to begin breaking down. Howe gave Clinton the command of Charlestown, but Clinton spent most of his time in Boston. He occupied the house of
John Hancock, which he scrupulously cared for. He hired a housekeeper named Mary Baddeley, the wife of a man who had supposedly been demoted because she refused an officer's advances. Clinton also hired Thomas Baddeley as a carpenter; the relationship Clinton established with Mary lasted the rest of his life, although it was only platonic during his time in Boston. Cracks had already begun to form in his relationship with Howe when plans were developed for an expedition to the southern colonies, command of which went to Clinton. He asked Howe for specific officers to accompany him and authority that an independent commander might normally have, but Howe rebuffed him on all such requests. In January 1776, Clinton sailed south with a small fleet and 1,500 men to assess military opportunities in the Carolinas. During his absence his fears about the situation in Boston were realized when the
Dorchester Heights were occupied and fortified by the rebels in early March, causing the British to
evacuate Boston and retreat to
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Campaigns in 1776 (1777 mezzotint) came to dislike Clinton during the 1776 campaign. Clinton's expedition to the Carolinas was expected to meet a fleet sent from Europe with more troops for operations in February 1776. Delayed by logistics and weather, this force, which included
Major General Charles Cornwallis as Clinton's second in command and Admiral
Sir Peter Parker did not arrive off the North Carolina coast until May. Concluding that North Carolina was not a good base for operations, they decided to assault
Charleston, South Carolina, whose defenses were reported to be unfinished.
Their assault, launched in late June, was a dismal failure. Clinton's troops were landed on an island near Sullivan's Island, where the rebel colonists had their main defenses, with the expectation that the channel between the two could be waded at low tide. This turned out not to be the case, and the attack was reduced to a naval bombardment. The bombardment in its turn failed because the spongy
palmetto logs used to construct
the fort absorbed the force of the cannonballs without splintering and breaking. ,Continental Army Clinton and Parker rejoined the main fleet to participate in General Howe's August 1776 assault on New York City. Clinton pestered Howe with a constant stream of ideas for the assault, which the commander in chief came to resent. Howe did however adopt Clinton's plan for attacking
George Washington's position in Brooklyn. At the 27 August
Battle of Long Island, British forces led by Howe and Clinton, following the latter's plan, successfully flanked the American forward positions, driving them back into their fortifications on Brooklyn Heights. However, Howe refused Clinton's recommendation that they follow up the overwhelming victory with an assault on the entrenched Americans, due to a lack of intelligence as to their strength and a desire to minimize casualties. Instead, Howe besieged the position, which the Americans abandoned without loss on 29 August. General Howe was rewarded with
a knighthood for his success. Howe then proceeded to take control of New York City,
landing at Kip's Bay on Manhattan, with Clinton again in the lead. Although Clinton again suggested moves to cut Washington's army off, Howe rejected them. In October Clinton led the army ashore in
Westchester County in a bid to trap Washington between the
Hudson and
Bronx Rivers. However, Washington reached
White Plains before Clinton did. After
a brief battle in which Washington was pushed further north, Howe turned south to consolidate control of Manhattan. By this time the relationship between the two men had broken down almost completely, with Howe, apparently fed up with Clinton's constant stream of criticisms and suggestions, refusing to allow Clinton even minor deviations in the army's marching route. In November Howe ordered Clinton to begin preparing an expedition to occupy
Newport, Rhode Island, desired as a port by the
Royal Navy. When Howe sent General Cornwallis into
New Jersey to chase after Washington, Clinton proposed that, rather than taking Newport, his force should be landed in New Jersey in an attempt to envelop Washington's army. Howe rejected this advice, and Clinton sailed for Newport in early December, occupying it in the face of minimal opposition.
Campaigns in 1777 In January 1777 Clinton was given leave to return to England. Planning for the 1777 campaign season called for two campaigns, one against
Philadelphia, and a second that would descend from
Montreal on
Lake Champlain to
Albany, New York, separating the
New England colonies. Since General Howe was taking leadership of the
Philadelphia campaign, Clinton contested for command of the northern campaign with Burgoyne. Howe supported him in this effort, but Burgoyne convinced King George and
Lord Sackville to give him the command. The king refused Clinton's request to resign, and ordered him back to New York to serve again as Howe's second in command. He was placated with a knighthood, but was also forbidden to publish accounts of the disastrous Charleston affair. He was formally invested with the
Order of the Bath on 11 April, and sailed for New York on the 29th. When Clinton arrived in New York in July, Howe had not yet sailed for Philadelphia. Clinton was surprised and upset that he would be left to hold New York with 7,000 troops, dominated by Loyalist formations and
Hessians, an arrangement he saw as inadequate to the task. He also quite bluntly informed Howe of the defects he saw in Howe's plan, which would isolate Burgoyne from any reasonable chance of support by either Howe or Clinton. He presciently wrote after learning that much of Washington's force had left the New York area, "I fear it bears heavy on Burgoyne ... If this campaign does not finish the war, I prophesy that there is an end of British dominion in America."
Burgoyne's campaign ended in disaster; Burgoyne was
defeated at Saratoga and surrendered shortly after. Clinton attempted to support Burgoyne, but the delay in arrival of reinforcements put off the effort. In early October, Clinton
captured two forts in the Hudson River highlands, and sent troops up the river toward Albany. The effort was too little and too late, and was cut off when he received orders from Howe requesting reinforcements. Howe's campaign for Philadelphia had been a success, but he had very nearly suffered a defeat in the
Battle of Germantown. As the commander in New York, Clinton lived at No. 1 Broadway, on Bowling Green, a house occupied by later commandants
General Robertson and
General Pattison. He was obligated to do a certain amount of entertaining. This he did, although he chafed at the costs involved. He was eventually joined by the Baddeleys. Mary Baddeley resumed her role as housekeeper, which he appreciated in part because of her excellent managerial skills. She apparently rebuffed Clinton's romantic overtures until she discovered her husband had been cheating on her. Clinton procured a position in one of the Loyalist regiments for her husband, and tried without success to get him transferred out of New York.
Commander-in-Chief General Howe submitted his resignation as Commander-in-Chief in America in the wake of the 1777 campaigns, and Clinton was on the short list of nominees to replace him—despite being mistrusted by Prime Minister
North, principally over his many complaints and requests to resign. Clinton was formally appointed to the post on 4 February 1778. Word of this did not arrive until April, and Clinton assumed command in Philadelphia in May 1778. France had
formally entered the war on the American side by this time. Clinton was consequently ordered to withdraw from Philadelphia and send 5,000 of his troops to the economically important Caribbean. For the rest of the war, Clinton received few reinforcements as a consequence of the globalisation of the conflict with France. His orders were to strengthen areas in America that were firmly under British control, and do no more than conduct raiding expeditions in the American-controlled areas. There was a shortage of transports for all of the Loyalists fleeing Philadelphia, so Clinton acted against his direct orders and decided to move the army to New York by land instead of by sea. He marched to New York and fought a battle with Washington's army at
Monmouth Court House on 28 June. Clinton burnished his reputation at home by writing a report on the movement that greatly exaggerated the size of Washington's
Continental Army and minimised the British casualties at Monmouth. Arriving in New York, he and Admiral Howe were faced with a French fleet outside the harbour. Fortunately, Admiral
d'Estaing decided against crossing the bar into the harbour, and sailed instead for Newport. Once Clinton learned of his destination, he marshalled troops to reinforce the Newport garrison while Lord Howe sailed to meet d'Estaing. Both fleets were scattered by a storm, and
the Americans failed to take Newport before Clinton arrived. Clinton sent the supporting force on
a raid of nearby communities, while he returned to New York to organize the troops that were to be sent southward. Clinton sent a detachment to strike at
Georgia that
took Savannah in December, and it gained a tenuous foothold at
Augusta in January 1779. He also detached troops for service in the
West Indies in a plan to capture
St. Lucia;
the expedition was a success, compelling a French surrender not long before the French fleet arrived. Clinton managed to establish a harmonious relationship with
William Eden, a member of the
Carlisle Peace Commission. This commission had been sent in a vain attempt at reconciliation with the American Congress. Despite its failures, Eden and Clinton got along, and Eden promised to make sure that Clinton's dispatches received favourable distribution in England. Clinton found himself dealing with the tit-for-tat murders taking place between the Patriots and Loyalists, and he was in office when Captain
Huddy was murdered, which eventually led to the
Asgill Affair. His dealings with the
Board of Associated Loyalists and their President
Governor William Franklin were his priority in the weeks before his departure. By mid-May 1782, Clinton informed the Secretary for the Colonies in Whitehall of the situation regarding Huddy's murder. He wrote to the Right Honourable
Wellbore Ellis on 11 May 1782:
Politics With the 1778 campaign season closed, Clinton considered options for action in 1779. Although he felt that Britain would be best served by withdrawing to the frontiers, popular opinion at home, as well as that of the king and
George Germain, dictated otherwise. Germain felt that raiding expeditions should be conducted "with spirit and humanity" to destroy American commerce and privateering; this strategy was one Clinton disliked. Militarily, Clinton and Washington did little more than stare at each other across the lines of New York City. Clinton ordered two major raiding expeditions, one
against Connecticut, the other
against Chesapeake Bay, while Washington detached troops to deal with the increasing frontier war, which was primarily orchestrated from
Quebec. Early in 1779 Clinton sent his trusted aide, Lieutenant Duncan Drummond, to England in order to argue Clinton's request to be recalled. Drummond was unsuccessful in this: despite the intervention of the Duke of Newcastle, the king refused to even consider granting Clinton leave, claiming that Clinton was "the only man who might still save America". William Eden also interceded in an attempt to improve Clinton's situation, but political divisions in the government and the prospect of Spanish entry into the war meant that Clinton ended up with very little support. Clinton also complained about the lack of naval support being provided by Admiral
James Gambier, with whom he also had a difficult relationship. He eventually sent London a list of admirals he thought he could work with. None of them were chosen, and Gambier was replaced temporarily by
George Collier before his permanent replacement,
Mariot Arbuthnot, arrived. After the Chesapeake raid Clinton drove the Americans from a key crossing of the Hudson River at
Stony Point, New York. Clinton had hoped that, with an expected reinforcement of troops from Europe, he could then attack either Washington's army or its supply lines, forcing Washington out of his well-defended mountain positions. However, the reinforcements, including Admiral Arbuthnot, were late in arriving, and Stony Point was
retaken by the Americans after Clinton weakened its garrison to supply men for the Connecticut raids. The Americans chose not to hold Stony Point, and Clinton reoccupied it. However, Clinton's opponents used the American success to criticise him, calling him "undetermined" and "feeble".
A similar action against a British outpost in New Jersey gave them further ammunition, and soured British morale. Further actions from New York were rendered impossible by the need for the naval squadron to address the
American expedition to dislodge a newly established British outpost in
Penobscot Bay. On 30 June 1779, Clinton issued what has become known as the
Philipsburg Proclamation (so named because it was issued from his headquarters at the
Philipsburg Manor House in
Westchester County, New York). This proclamation resurrected a similar offer of freedom to enlisted
runaway slaves that had been made in
a similar proclamation by Virginia Governor
Lord Dunmore in 1775. Clinton justified this offer by citing the fact that the Continental Army was also actively employing slave labor to assist their war effort (the Continental Army would never fully accept enslaved men in its ranks). The proclamation led to a flood of fugitive slaves making their way to British lines, requiring Clinton and his commanders to almost immediately broaden its interpretation to include all enslaved people, not just men who chose to serve in the British ranks. Consequently, tens of thousands of enslaved men, women, and children gained freedom—immediate and without condition—behind British lines, resulting in what historian Cassandra Pybus has called "the single greatest act of abolition in early American history." While its immediate military impact is debated, the Proclamation underlined the role of enslavement in the American Revolution, added a moral dimension to British war aims, and profoundly influenced Clinton’s legacy as a British commander who recognized—and exploited—the contradictions between Patriot rhetoric and the realities of slavery.
Southern strategy Clinton's relationship with Arbuthnot got off to a bad start. Rumors of a French fleet headed for northern ports (Halifax, Newport, or New York) pulled the leaders in different directions, and put off plans to withdraw from Newport for the purposes of strengthening the New York garrison (which had been weakened by disease) on at least one occasion. However, the French instead
besieged Savannah, Georgia, with American assistance, and failed disastrously in the attempt. This convinced Clinton that an expedition against South Carolina held promise. Loyalist support was said to be strong there, and the people were said to be "sick of their opposition to government" and the British blockade of their ports. Clinton began to assemble a force an expedition to take Charleston, withdrawing the forces from Newport for the purpose. Clinton took personal command of this campaign, and the task force with 14,000 men sailed south from New York at the end of the year. By early 1780, Clinton had brought
Charleston under siege. In May, working together with Admiral Arbuthnot, he forced the surrender of the city, with its garrison of 5,000, in a stunning and serious defeat for the rebel cause. Arbuthnot and Clinton did not work together well during the siege, and their feuding lasted into 1781, with disastrous results for the unity of the British high command. Clinton's relationship with Cornwallis also deteriorated further during the siege, improving slightly after the American surrender and Clinton's departure for New York. From New York, he oversaw the campaign in the South, and his correspondence to Cornwallis throughout the war showed an active interest in the affairs of his southern army. However, as the campaign progressed, he grew further and further away from his subordinate. As the campaign drew to a close, the correspondence became more and more acrimonious. Part of this may be due to
George Germain, whose correspondence with Cornwallis may have convinced the junior officer to start disregarding the orders of his superior and consider himself to be an independent command. In 1782, after fighting in the North American theater ended with the
surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Clinton was replaced as Commander-in-Chief by Sir
Guy Carleton, and he returned to England. ==Later career==