Heterogeneous catalysis

Adsorption is an essential step in heterogeneous catalysis. Adsorption is the process by which a gas (or solution) phase molecule (the adsorbate) binds to solid (or liquid) surface atoms (the adsorbent). The reverse of adsorption is desorption, the adsorbate splitting from adsorbent. In a reaction facilitated by heterogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is the adsorbent and the reactants are the adsorbate. Types of adsorption Two types of adsorption are recognized: physisorption, weakly bound adsorption, and chemisorption, strongly bound adsorption. Many processes in heterogeneous catalysis lie between the two extremes. The Lennard-Jones model provides a basic framework for predicting molecular interactions as a function of atomic separation. Physisorption In physisorption, a molecule becomes attracted to the surface atoms via van der Waals forces. These include dipole-dipole interactions, induced dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces. Note that no chemical bonds are formed between adsorbate and adsorbent, and their electronic states remain relatively unperturbed. Typical energies for physisorption are from 3 to 10 kcal/mol. The nature of the precursor state can influence the reaction kinetics. Chemisorption When a molecule approaches close enough to surface atoms such that their electron clouds overlap, chemisorption can occur. In chemisorption, the adsorbate and adsorbent share electrons signifying the formation of chemical bonds. Typical energies for chemisorption range from 20 to 100 kcal/mol. Two cases of chemisorption are: • Molecular adsorption: the adsorbate remains intact. An example is alkene binding by platinum. • Dissociation adsorption: one or more bonds break concomitantly with adsorption. In this case, the barrier to dissociation affects the rate of adsorption. An example of this is the binding of H2 to a metal catalyst, where the H-H bond is broken upon adsorption. == Surface reactions ==

Most metal surface reactions occur by chain propagation in which catalytic intermediates are cyclically produced and consumed. Two main mechanisms for surface reactions can be described for A + B → C. In heterogeneous catalysis, reactants diffuse from the bulk fluid phase to adsorb to the catalyst surface. The adsorption site is not always an active catalyst site, so reactant molecules must migrate across the surface to an active site. At the active site, reactant molecules will react to form product molecule(s) by following a more energetically facile path through catalytic intermediates (see figure to the right). The product molecules then desorb from the surface and diffuse away. The catalyst itself remains intact and free to mediate further reactions. Transport phenomena such as heat and mass transfer, also play a role in the observed reaction rate. == Catalyst design ==

Catalysts are not active towards reactants across their entire surface; only specific locations possess catalytic activity, called active sites. The surface area of a solid catalyst has a strong influence on the number of available active sites. In industrial practice, solid catalysts are often porous to maximize surface area, commonly achieving 50–400 m2/g. Porous materials are cost effective due to their high surface area-to-mass ratio and enhanced catalytic activity. In many cases, a solid catalyst is dispersed on a supporting material to increase surface area (spread the number of active sites) and provide stability. Sabatier principle states that the surface-adsorbates interaction has to be an optimal amount: not too weak to be inert toward the reactants and not too strong to poison the surface and avoid desorption of the products. The statement that the surface-adsorbate interaction has to be an optimum, is a qualitative one. Usually the number of adsorbates and transition states associated with a chemical reaction is a large number, thus the optimum has to be found in a many-dimensional space. Catalyst design in such a many-dimensional space is not a computationally viable task. Additionally, such optimization process would be far from intuitive. Scaling relations are used to decrease the dimensionality of the space of catalyst design. Such relations are correlations among adsorbates binding energies (or among adsorbate binding energies and transition states also known as BEP relations) that are "similar enough" e.g., OH versus OOH scaling. Applying scaling relations to the catalyst design problems greatly reduces the space dimensionality (sometimes to as small as 1 or 2). Such modeling then leads to well-known volcano-plots at which the optimum qualitatively described by the Sabatier principle is referred to as the "top of the volcano". Scaling relations can be used not only to connect the energetics of radical surface-adsorbed groups (e.g., O*,OH*), A recent challenge for researchers in catalytic sciences is to "break" the scaling relations. The correlations which are manifested in the scaling relations confine the catalyst design space, preventing one from reaching the "top of the volcano". Breaking scaling relations can refer to either designing surfaces or motifs that do not follow a scaling relation, or ones that follow a different scaling relation (than the usual relation for the associated adsorbates) in the right direction: one that can get us closer to the top of the reactivity volcano. In addition to studying catalytic reactivity, scaling relations can be used to study and screen materials for selectivity toward a special product. There are special combination of binding energies that favor specific products over the others. Sometimes a set of binding energies that can change the selectivity toward a specific product "scale" with each other, thus to improve the selectivity one has to break some scaling relations; an example of this is the scaling between methane and methanol oxidative activation energies that leads to the lack of selectivity in direct conversion of methane to methanol. ==Catalyst deactivation==

Catalyst deactivation is defined as a loss in catalytic activity and/or selectivity over time. Substances that decrease the reaction rate are called poisons. Poisons chemisorb to the catalyst surface and reduce the number of available active sites for reactant molecules to bind to. Common poisons include Group V, VI, and VII elements (e.g. S, O, P, Cl), some toxic metals (e.g. As, Pb), and adsorbing species with multiple bonds (e.g. CO, unsaturated hydrocarbons). Substances that increase reaction rate are called promoters. For example, the presence of alkali metals in ammonia synthesis increases the rate of N2 dissociation. This results in a loss of catalyst material. In industry, catalyst deactivation costs billions every year due to process shutdown and catalyst replacement. ==Industrial examples==

In industry, many design variables must be considered including reactor and catalyst design across multiple scales ranging from the subnanometer to tens of meters. The conventional heterogeneous catalysis reactors include batch, continuous, and fluidized-bed reactors, while more recent setups include fixed-bed, microchannel, and multi-functional reactors. • The cracking, isomerisation, and reformation of hydrocarbons to form appropriate and useful blends of petrol. • In automobiles, catalytic converters are used to catalyze three main reactions: • The oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: • :2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) • The reduction of nitrogen monoxide back to nitrogen: • :2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g) • The oxidation of hydrocarbons to water and carbon dioxide: • :2 C6H6 + 15 O2 → 12 CO2 + 6 H2O • This process can occur with any of hydrocarbon, but most commonly is performed with petrol or diesel. • Asymmetric heterogeneous catalysis facilitates the production of pure enantiomer compounds using chiral heterogeneous catalysts. • The majority of heterogeneous catalysts are based on metals or metal oxides; however, some chemical reactions can be catalyzed by carbon-based materials, e.g., oxidative dehydrogenations or selective oxidations. • Ethylbenzene + 1/2 O2 → Styrene + H2O • Acrolein + 1/2 O2 → Acrylic acid ==Solid-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Catalyzed Reactions==

Although the majority of heterogeneous catalysts are solids, there are a few variations which are of practical value. For two immiscible solutions (liquids), one carries the catalyst while the other carries the reactant. This set up is the basis of biphasic catalysis as implemented in the industrial production of butyraldehyde by the hydroformylation of propylene. ==See also==