History of Bangladesh (1971–present)

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman administration , as prime minister, with US President Gerald Ford at the Oval Office in 1974 Upon his release on 10 January 1972, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman briefly assumed the provisional presidency and later took office as the prime minister, assuming control of government branches and decision-making. The politicians elected in 1970 formed the provisional parliament of the new state. The Mukti Bahini and other militias amalgamated to form a new Bangladeshi army to which Indian forces transferred control on 17 March. The government faced serious challenges, which included the rehabilitation of millions of people displaced in 1971, and organising the supply of food, health aids, and other necessities. The effects of the 1970 cyclone had not worn off, and the state's economy was severely declined by the conflict. Rahman helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom, and other European nations to obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for the nation. He signed a treaty of friendship with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance, and began training Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel. Rahman maintained diplomatic ties with Indira Gandhi, strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and established close ties with India. Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10 million refugees. The economy began recovering, and a famine was prevented. A constitution was proclaimed in 1972, and elections were held, which resulted in Rahman and his party winning a landslide victory. He further outlined state programmes to expand primary education, sanitation, food, healthcare, water, and electricity supply across the country. A five-year plan released in 1973 focused state investments on agriculture, rural infrastructure, and cottage industries. From March 1974 to December 1974, what is described by historians as one of the deadliest famines of the 20th century occurred in Bangladesh, when it is estimated that anywhere between 27,000 and 1,500,000 people perished from starvation. The first widespread reports of this famine started to emerge in March 1974, and the price of rice climbed significantly. Rangpur District of Bangladesh experienced the first signs of this famine. Communist insurgency At the height of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's power, left-wing insurgents, organised by Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal's armed wing Gonobahini, fought against the government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to establish a Marxist government. The government responded by forming the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, which began a campaign of widespread human rights violations against the general populace. The force became involved in numerous charges of human rights abuses, including political killings, and rape. Members of the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini were granted immunity from prosecution and other legal proceedings. while political unrest gave rise to increasing violence. During the famine, 70,000 people were reported as dead with varying numbers on the death count. In response, he began increasing his powers. On 25 January 1975, Rahman declared a state of emergency, and his political supporters approved a constitutional amendment banning all opposition political parties. Rahman assumed the presidency and was given extraordinary powers. His political supporters amalgamated to form the only legalised political party, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League, commonly known by its initials—BAKSAL. The party identified itself with the rural masses, farmers, and labourers, and took control of government machinery. It also launched major socialist programmes. Using government forces and the Rakkhi Bahini, Rahman suppressed any opposition to him. The Rakkhi Bahini and the police were accused of torturing suspects and political killings. While retaining support from many segments of the population, veterans of the 1971 war criticised Rahman for what was seen as a 'betrayal' of the causes of democracy and civil rights. Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and aftermath On 15 August 1975, a group of junior army officers stormed the presidential residence with tanks and killed Rahman, his family, and his personal staff. Only his daughters, Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana, who were in West Germany, escaped. They were temporarily exiled from Bangladesh. The coup was planned by angered Awami League colleagues and military officers, which included Rahman's colleague and former confidant Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad, who became his immediate successor. There was speculation by journalist Lawrence Lifschultz, who accused the US Central Intelligence Agency of having instigated the plot. He alleged that the CIA was involved in the coup and assassination, relying on testimony from the then US ambassador in Dhaka, Eugene Boster. Rahman's death caused the nation to go into many years of political violence. The coup leaders were soon overthrown, and a series of counter-coups and political assassinations led to a period of turmoil in the country. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's assassination and overthrow. Military-Civil administration under Ziaur Rahman, 1975–81 Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff General Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as a primary political candidate. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, promising fresh elections in 1977, and instituted martial law. Acting behind the scenes of the Martial Law Administration (MLA), Zia sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing the ban on political parties, he sought to restructure the demoralised bureaucracy, to begin new economic development programmes, and to emphasise family planning. In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement five months later, promising national elections in 1978. As president, Zia announced a 19-point programme of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Keeping his promise to hold elections, Zia won a five-year term in the June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. In November 1978, his government removed the remaining restrictions on political party activities in time for parliamentary elections in February 1979. These elections, which were contested by more than 30 parties, marked the transformation of Bangladesh's government from the MLA to a democratically elected, constitutional one. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties. In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The attempted coup never spread beyond the city, and the major conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. In accordance with the constitution, Vice-President Justice Abdul Sattar was sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for the election of a new president within six months. In the election, Sattar won as the BNP's candidate. President Sattar sought to follow the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet, but the army stepped in once again. ==1980s==

Administration of Hussain Muhammad Ershad, 1982–90 and Military Secretary (1984–1989) Brigadier ABM Elias Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup on 24 March 1982, citing the "grave political, economic, and societal crisis" that the nation was in. This move was not unanticipated, as Ershad had previously publicly expressed dissatisfaction with the ageing Sattar (who was over 75 years old) and his handling of national affairs, in addition to his refusal to allow the army more participation in politics. Like his predecessors, Ershad suspended the constitution and—citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement—declared martial law. Among his first actions were to privatise the largely state-owned economy (up to 70 per cent of industry was in public ownership) and encourage private investment in heavy industries along with light manufacturing, raw materials, and newspapers. Foreign companies were invited to invest in Bangladeshi industry as well, and stiff protectionist measures were put in place to safeguard manufacturing. All political parties and trade unions were banned for the time being, with the death penalty to be administered for corruption and political agitation. Ershad's takeover was initially viewed as a positive development, as Bangladesh was in a state of serious economic difficulty after Zia's death and political turmoil. Two weeks before the coup in March, Prime Minister Shah Azizur Rahman announced that the country was facing significant food shortages. The government also faced a severe budget deficit to the tune of 4 billion taka (approximately $260 million in 1980), and the IMF declared that it would not provide any more loans until Bangladesh paid down some of its existing debts. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, retaining his positions as army chief and CMLA. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties' participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the president's ambitious decentralisation programme. Political life was further liberalised in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya Party (Ershad), designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established. Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won 153 of the 330 elected seats in the National Assembly. The Awami League participated in the elections, led by the late Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's daughter, Sheikh Hasina, who was the leader of the opposition against Ershad. Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the Awami League refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad reportedly received 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders and much of the foreign press estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities. Ershad continued his stated commitment to lift martial law. In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to amend the constitution and confirm the previous actions of the martial law regime. The president then lifted martial law, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly. photographed by Dinu Alam with the words "Let tyranny die!" before he was killed, protesting the autocratic rule of Hussain Muhammad Ershad. In July 1987, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organise protest marches and nationwide strikes. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988. All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the government proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed numerous bills, including, in June 1988, a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion and a provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralising the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court. By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted down. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order. Devolution and Local Government Act To improve rural and local administration, Ershad introduced the upazila and Zila Parishad system. He held the "first democratic elections for these village councils" in 1985. ==1990s==

Transition to democracy A broad coalition of political parties united against Ershad. Khaleda Zia, led the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, which allied with the Bangladesh Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina. Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and other Islamic parties and alliances joined the opposition ranks. Although the parliament was dissolved, fresh elections were boycotted by the opposition, including Awami League and Jamaat. Students launched an intensifying opposition campaign, which ultimately forced Ershad to step down. On 6 December 1990, Ershad offered his resignation. On 27 February 1991, after two months of widespread civil unrest, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers, including internal monitors, generally categorize as the nation's most free and fair elections to that date. First Khaleda administration, 1991–96 The centre-right Bangladesh Nationalist Party won a plurality of seats and formed a government with support from the Islamic party Jamaat-e-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: the BNP, led by Prime Minister Khaleda Zia; the Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-e-Islami, led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party, led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. The electorate approved further changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a parliamentary system and returning governing power to the office of the prime minister, as in Bangladesh's original 1972 constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas. In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a programme of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia's government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. The opposition, including the Bangladesh Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for 15 February 1996. In February Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections; former chief justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman was named chief adviser (a position equivalent to Prime Minister) in the interim government. New parliamentary elections were held in June 1996, and the Awami League won a plurality and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party led by deposed president Hussain Muhammad Ershad; party leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister of Bangladesh. First Hasina administration, 1996–2001 Sheikh Hasina formed what she called a "Government of National Consensus" in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president Hussain Muhammad Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: the Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president Ershad was released from prison on bail in January 1997. International and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, and ultimately, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Bangladesh Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998. In June 1999, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from six days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong City Corporation elections in January 2000. In July 2001, the Bangladesh Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Bangladesh Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, forswear the use of hartals (general strikes) as political tools, and, if successful in forming a government, allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on 1 October 2001. ==2000s==

Second Khaleda administration, 2001–2006 The Four Party Alliance, led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Khaleda Zia was sworn in on 10 October 2001 as prime minister for the third time (first in 1991, second after the 15 February 1996 elections). Following the end of Khaleda Zia's government in late October 2006, there were protests and strikes, during which 40 people were killed in the following month, over uncertainty about who would head the caretaker government. The caretaker government had difficulty bringing all parties to the table. Awami League and its allies protested and alleged that the caretaker government favoured the BNP. The interim period was marked by violence and strikes. Presidential Advisor Mukhlesur Rahman Chowdhury negotiated with Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia and brought all the parties to the planned 22 January 2007 parliamentary elections. Later, Hussain Muhammad Ershad's nomination was cancelled; as a result, the Grand Alliance withdrew its candidates en masse on the last day possible. They demanded to have voters' lists published. Later in the month, President Iajuddin Ahmed imposed a state of emergency. Iajuddin Ahmed resigned from the post of chief adviser under reported pressure from the Bangladesh Army, and appointed Fakhruddin Ahmed the new chief adviser. Political activity was prohibited. The military-backed government worked to develop graft and corruption cases against leaders and members of both major parties. In March 2007, Khaleda Zia's two sons, who both had positions in the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, were charged with corruption. Hasina was charged with graft and extortion in April 2007, and a day later, Khaleda Zia was charged with graft as well. There were attempts by Bangladesh Army chief Moeen U Ahmed, the head of the Anti-Terrorism division of the Directorate General of Forces Intelligence, Brigadier General ATM Amin, and Director of Directorate General of Forces Intelligence Brigadier General Chowdhury Fazlul Bari to remove Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia from politics. Former army chief General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury was made the head of the Bangladesh Anti Corruption Commission. The Anti Corruption Commission and the Bangladesh Election Commission were strengthened by the caretaker government. On 27 August 2007, violence broke out on the University of Dhaka campus between students and soldiers of the Bangladesh Army. Students called strikes and burned effigies of the army chief. Police attacked the students and physically assaulted Acting Vice-chancellor AFM Yusuf Haider and other faculty members of the University of Dhaka. Students were joined in demonstration by street vendors and slum residents who were evicted by the government. The Bangladesh Army agreed to the demands of the protesters and removed the army camp from the University of Dhaka campus. Students and teachers expressed the continued state of emergency in Bangladesh. Second Hasina administration in Moscow The Awami League won the national election on 29 December 2008 as part of a larger electoral alliance that also included the Jatiya Party led by former military ruler General Hussain Muhammad Ershad as well as some leftist parties. According to the official results, the Bangladesh Awami League won 230 out of 299 constituencies, and together with its allies, had a total of 262 parliamentary seats. The Awami League and its allies received 57% of the total votes cast. The AL alone got 48%, compared to 36% of the other major alliance led by the BNP, which by itself got 33% of the votes. Sheikh Hasina, as party head, became the new prime minister. Her term of office began on 7 January 2009, after Fakhruddin Ahmed. The new cabinet included many first-time ministers, including three women in prominent positions: Dipu Moni (Foreign Minister), Matia Chowdhury (Agriculture Minister), and Sahara Khatun (Home Minister). Younger MPs with a link to assassinated members of the 1972–1975 Awami League government are Syed Ashraful Islam, son of Syed Nazrul Islam; Sheikh Fazle Noor Taposh, son of Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni; and Tanjim Ahmad Sohel Taj, son of Tajuddin Ahmad. Since 2009, the Awami League government faced several major political challenges, including the BDR mutiny, power crisis, unrest in the garments industry and stock market fluctuations. Judicial achievements for the party included restoring the 1972 constitution (set by the first Awami League government), beginning war crimes trials, and a guilty verdict in the 1975 assassination trial. According to the Nielsen 2-year survey, 50 per cent felt the country was moving in the right direction, and 36 per cent gave the government a favourable rating. On 18 September 2012, the Bangladesh Supreme Court declared the caretaker government led by Fakhruddin Ahmed as unconstitutional. Vision 2021 and Digital Bangladesh Vision 2021 was the political manifesto of the Bangladesh Awami League party before winning the national elections of 2008. It stands as a political vision of Bangladesh for the year 2021, the golden jubilee of the nation. The policy has been criticized as a policy emblematic of technological optimism in the context of Bangladesh and the state repression of media, low internet penetration, and inadequate electricity generation. Digital Bangladesh implies the broad use of computers, and embodies the modern philosophy of effective and useful use of technology in terms of implementing the promises in education, health, job placement and poverty reduction. The party underscored a changing attitude, positive thinking and innovative ideas for the successes of "Digital Bangladesh". ==2010s==

War crimes tribunal , Protests demanding the punishment for war criminals in Shahbagh, Bangladesh. During the 2008 general election, the Awami League pledged to establish the tribunals in response to long-standing calls for trying war criminals. The first indictments were issued in 2010. However, the Pakistani military, who were the main combatants of the 1971 Liberation War, were not subject to the proceedings of the courts. The government set up the tribunal after the Awami League won the general election in December 2008 with a more than two-thirds majority in parliament. The War Crimes Fact Finding Committee, tasked to investigate and find evidence, completed its report in 2008, identifying 1,600 suspects. Prior to the formation of the ICT, the United Nations Development Programme offered assistance in 2009 on the tribunal's formation. In 2009, the parliament amended the 1973 act that authorised such a tribunal to update it. Third Hasina administration, 2014–2019 A general election was held on 5 January 2014, in accordance with the constitutional requirement that the election must take place within the 90-day period before the expiration of the term of the parliament on 24 January 2014. The buildup to the election was marred by violence. The opposition BNP agitated for restoration of the caretaker government system, abolished in June 2011 when parliament, under Prime Minister Hasina, passed the 15th amendment of the constitution. Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), once a BNP ally, protested against the International Crimes Tribunal and its conviction and execution of JI leaders. The BNP and JI were among the 70 per cent of registered parties that boycotted the election. The Jatiya Party threatened to boycott the election too, but was persuaded to participate. Out of 300 seats, 233 went to the AL, the Jatiya Party won 34, and the remainder were divided among minor parties and independent candidates. More than half of the seats, 153, were uncontested. According to The New York Times, voter turnout was low, at 20 per cent. Hasina was sworn in to lead the next government. She included three Jatiya Party members in her cabinet. Student protests against VAT on education , Dhaka protest VAT on tuition fees. The 2015 Bangladesh student protests on "No VAT on Education" were protests by students of private universities in Bangladesh demanding the VAT imposed on higher education in private universities be eliminated. The Finance Minister of the Awami League government first introduced a 10% VAT upon higher education in private universities in the draft of budget of 2015–16. Following strong opposition, the VAT was reduced to 7.5%. The imposed VAT was withdrawn by the finance division after a cabinet meeting on 14 September 2015. Quota Reform Movement The 2018 Bangladesh Quota Reform Movement was a movement demanding reforms in policies regarding recruitment in the Bangladesh government services. Bangladesh Sadharan Chhatra Adhikar Sangrakshan Parishad (Bangladesh General Students' Right Conservation Council) initiated movement initially began in Shahbag and on Dhaka University campus on 17 February 2018, and eventually spread country-wide by 8 April 2018. The movement rapidly attained popularity among students of different universities and colleges forcing the government to announce changes in its policy. Road Safety Protests A series of public protests in Bangladesh advocating improved road safety were held from 29 July to 8 August 2018. They were sparked by the deaths of two high-school students in Dhaka struck by a bus operated by an unlicensed driver who was racing to collect passengers. The incident impelled students to demand safer roads and stricter traffic laws, and the demonstrations rapidly spread throughout Bangladesh. The protests were peaceful until 2 August, when police attempted to disperse the demonstrators with tear gas and people believed to be members of a pro-government youth league attacked protesters and journalists. The government arrested several protesters and a photographer for giving an interview about the protests to international media. Various international organisations and high-profile figures expressed solidarity with the protesters.