Paleolithic The
Sahara has experienced
significant climatic fluctuations throughout its history, with periods of both drier and wetter climates than today. It was inhospitable to human life between 325,000 and 290,000 years ago and again between 280,000 and 225,000 years ago, except for a few favorable refuges like Lake Tihodaïne in the water-retaining
Tassili n'Ajjer region. During these arid phases, the desert expanded far beyond its present-day boundaries, leaving behind sand dunes that stretch well beyond the modern Sahara. Human occupation is primarily linked to the wetter "green" phases when ecological conditions were more suitable for settlement and migration. It is possible that anatomically modern humans, who may have emerged in isolation south of the Sahara between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago, already inhabited the humid, water-rich regions during a prolonged green phase over 200,000 years ago. Around 125,000 to 110,000 years ago, an extensive network of rivers and lakes enabled the northward spread of fauna, followed by human hunter-gatherer groups. Among these water systems was
Mega Lake Chad, which, at its largest extent, covered over 360,000 km2. However, during a subsequent arid phase between 70,000 and 58,000 years ago, the Sahara once again became a formidable barrier to migration. Another green period followed between 50,000 and 45,000 years ago. In present-day Mali, archaeological evidence is less abundant than in northern neighboring regions. However, excavations at the
Ounjougou complex on the
Dogon Plateau, near
Bandiagara, have revealed signs of human presence dating back over 150,000 years. Evidence of continuous habitation is firmly established for the period between 70,000 and 25,000 years ago. The
Paleolithic period in Mali ended relatively early, likely due to the onset of another extremely arid phase – the Ogolia – around 25,000 to 20,000 years ago, which transformed the region back into a dry savannah landscape.
Neolithic Following the
Last Glacial Maximum and the retreat of northern ice sheets, the climate in the Sahara region was significantly more humid than it is today. The Niger River formed a vast inland lake near Timbuktu and
Araouane, while a similarly large body of water developed in the
Lake Chad basin. During this period, which began around 9500 BCE, the landscape of northern Mali resembled the
savannah ecosystems found in southern Mali today. The humid phase that followed the
Younger Dryas (a cold climatic episode) was eventually replaced by increasing aridity around 5000 BCE. The
Neolithic period, marked by a transition from foraging to food production, developed during this wetter era. It is usually divided into three phases, separated by distinct dry intervals.
Sorghum and
millet were among the earliest cultivated crops, and by 8000 BCE, large herds of cattle – closely related to modern
zebus – grazed across what is now the Sahara. Sheep and
goats were introduced much later from West Asia, whereas cattle were likely first domesticated within Africa.
Pottery appeared independently at several sites, including
Ounjougou in central Mali, with
ceramics dated to around 9400 BCE – one of the earliest known examples in West Africa. Another major site was
Djenné-Djenno, occupied from approximately 250 BCE to 800 CE. Djenné-Djenno formed a substantial urban complex, consisting of 40 mounds spread across a 4-kilometer radius. The site itself likely extended over 33 hectares (82 acres) and participated in both local and long-distance trade networks. During Djenné-Djenno's second phase – which occurred during the first millennium CE – the site expanded significantly, possibly covering over 100,000 square meters. This period also saw the emergence of permanent mud-brick architecture, including the construction of a city wall. The wall, built using cylindrical mud-brick technology, was approximately 3.7 meters wide at its base and extended for nearly two kilometers around the town. References to Mali appear sporadically in early
Islamic literature. The 11th-century geographer
al-Bakri (writing in 1068 CE) mentions the regions of "Pene" and "Malal," which may correspond to areas within early Mali. The historian
Ibn Khaldun, writing in the late 14th century, recounts the conversion to Islam of an early Malian ruler known as Barmandana. Additional geographical details are found in the 12th-century works of
al-Idrisi. ==Empires==