The
Hafsid dynasty (1230–1574) succeeded
Almohad rule in Ifriqiya, with the Hafsids claiming to represent the true spiritual heritage of its founder, the Mahdi
Ibn Tumart (c. 1077 – 1130). For a brief moment a Hafsid sovereign would be recognized as the
Caliph of Islam. Tunisia under the Hafsids would eventually regain for a time cultural primacy in the Maghrib.
Political chronology Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti was one of the
Ten, the crucial group composed of very early adherents to the
Almohad movement [
al-Muwahhidun], circa 1121. These
Ten were companions of Ibn Tumart the Mahdi, and formed an inner circle consulted on all important matters. Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti, wounded in battle near
Marrakesh in 1130, was for a long time a powerful figure within the Almohad movement. His son 'Umar al-Hintati was appointed by the Almohad caliph
Muhammad an-Nasir as governor of Ifriqiya in 1207 and served until his death in 1221. His son, the grandson of Abu Hafs, was Abu Zakariya.
Abu Zakariya (1203–1249) served the Almohads in Ifriqiya as governor of
Gabès, then in 1226 as governor of
Tunis. In 1229 during disturbances within the Almohad movement, Abu Zakariya declared his independence, having the Mahdi's name declared at Friday prayer, but himself taking the title of
Amir: hence, the start of the Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574). In the next few years he secured his hold on the cities of Ifriqiya, then captured
Tripolitania (1234) to the east, and to the west
Algiers (1235) and later
Tlemcen (1242). He solidified his rule among the Berber confederacies. Government structure of the Hafsid state followed the Almohad model, a rather strict hierarchy and centralization. Abu Zakariya's succession to the Almohad movement was acknowledged as the only state maintaining Almohad traditions, and was recognized in Friday prayer by many states in Al-Andalus and in Morocco (including the
Merinids). Diplomatic relations were opened with
Frederick II of Sicily,
Venice,
Genoa, and
Aragon. Abu Zakariya the founder of the Hafsids became the foremost ruler in
the Maghrib. For an historic moment, the son of Abu Zakariya and self-declared caliph of the Hafsids,
al-Mustansir (r.1249-1277), was recognised as
Caliph by Mecca and the Islamic world (1259–1261), following termination of the
Abbasid caliphate by the Mongols in 1258. Yet the moment passed as a rival claimant to the title advanced; the Hafsids remained a local sovereignty. and
Tripoli) and neighboring states, circa 1400 Since their origins with Abu Zakariya the Hafsids had represented their regime as heir to the Almohad movement founded by the Mahdi
Ibn Tumart, whose name was invoked during Friday prayer at emirate mosques until the 15th century. Hafsid government was accordingly constituted after the Almohad model created by the Mahdi, i.e., it being rigorous
hierarchy. The Amir held all power with a code of etiquette surrounding his person, although as sovereign he did not always hold himself aloof. The Amir's counsel was the
Ten, composed of the chief Almohad
shaiks. Next in order was the
Fifty assembled from petty shaiks, with ordinary shaiks thereafter. The early Hafsids had a censor, the
mazwar, who supervised the ranking of the designated shaiks and assigned them to specified categories. Originally there were three ministers [
wazir, plural
wuzara]: of the army (commander and logistics); of finance (accounting and tax); and, of state (correspondence and police). Over the centuries the office of
Hajib increased in importance, at first being major-domo of the palace, then intermediary between the Amir and his cabinet, and finally de facto the first minister. State authority was publicly asserted by impressive
processions: high officials on horseback parading to the sound of
kettledrums and tambors, with colorful silk banners held high, all in order to cultivate a regal pomp. In provinces where the Amir enjoyed recognized authority, his governors were usually close family members, assisted by an experienced official. Elsewhere provincial appointees had to contend with strong local
oligarchies or leading families. Regarding the rural tribes, various strategies were employed; for those on good terms their tribal shaik might work as a double agent, serving as their representative to the central government, and also as government agent to his fellow tribal members. In 1270 King
Louis IX of France, whose brother was the king of Sicily, landed an army near Tunis; disease devastated their camp. Later, Hafsid influence was reduced by the rise of the Moroccan
Marinids of
Fez, who captured and lost Tunis twice (1347, and 1357). Yet Hafsid fortunes would recover; two notable rulers being Abu Faris (1394–1434) and his grandson Abu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488). Toward the end, internal disarray within the Hafsid dynasty created vulnerabilities, while a great power struggle arose between Spaniard and Turk over control of the Mediterranean. The Hafsid dynasts became pawns, subject to the rival strategies of the combatants. By 1574 Ifriqiya had been incorporated into the
Ottoman Empire.
Society and culture '' 'jurisdiction' in current
Islamic law After an hiatus under the
Almohads, the
Maliki madhhab (school of law) resumed its full traditional jurisdiction over the Maghrib. During the 13th century, the Maliki school had undergone substantial liberalizing changes due in part to Iraqi influence. Under Hafsid jurisprudents the concept of
maslahah or "public interest" developed in the operation of their
madhhab. This opened up Maliki
fiqh to considerations of necessity and circumstance with regard to the general welfare of the community. By this means, local
custom was admitted in the
Sharia of Malik, to become an integral part of the legal discipline. Later, the Maliki theologian Muhammad ibn 'Arafa (1316–1401) of Tunis studied at the Zaituna library, said to contain 60,000 volumes. Bedouin Arabs continued to arrive into the 13th century. With their tribal ability to raid and war still intact, they remained problematic and influential. The Arab language came to be predominant, except for a few Berber-speaking areas, e.g.,
Kharijite Djerba, and the desert south. An unfortunate divide developed between the governance of the cities and that of the countryside; at times the city-based rulers would grant rural tribes autonomy ('iqta') in exchange for their support in intra-maghribi struggles. Yet this tribal independence of the central authority meant also that when the center grew weak, the periphery might still remain strong and resilient. From
al-Andalus Muslim and Jewish migration continued to come into Ifriqiya, especially after the fall of
Granada in 1492, the last Muslim state ruling on the Iberian peninsula. These newly arriving immigrants brought infusions of their highly developed arts. The well-regarded Andalusian traditions of
music and poetry are found discussed by
Ahmad al-Tifashi (1184–1253) of Tunis, in his ''Muta'at al-Asma' fi 'ilm al-sama''' [Pleasure to the Ears, on the Art of Music], in volume 41 of his encyclopedia. As a result of the initial prosperity, Al-Mustansir (r.1249-1277) had transformed the capital city of
Tunis, constructing a palace and the Abu Fihr park; he also created an estate near
Bizerte (said by
Ibn Khaldun to be without equal in the world). Education was improved by the institution of a system of
madrasah. Sufism, e.g., Sidi Bin 'Arus (d. 1463 Tunis) founder of the
Arusiyya tariqah, became increasingly prominent, forming social links between the city and countryside. The Sufi
shaikhs began to assume the religious authority once held by the unitarian Almohads, according to Abun-Nasr.
Commerce and trade Tunisia under the early Hafsids, as well as the entire Maghrib, enjoyed a general prosperity due to the rise of the
Saharan-Sudanese trade. Perhaps more important was the increase in Mediterranean commerce including trade with
Europeans. Across the region, the repetition of buy and sell dealings with Christians led to the eventual development of
trading practices and structured shipping arrangements that were crafted to ensure mutual security, customs revenue, and commercial profit. It was possible for an arriving ship to deliver its goods and pick-up the return cargo in several days time. Christian merchants of the Mediterranean, usually organized by their city-of-origin, set up and maintained their own trading facilities (a
funduq) in these North African customs ports to handle the flow of merchandise and marketing. The principal maritime customs ports were then:
Tunis,
Sfax,
Mahdia,
Jerba, and
Gabés (all in Tunisia);
Oran, Bougie (
Béjaïa), and
Bône (Annaba) (in Algeria); and
Tripoli (in Libya). At such ports generally, the imports were off loaded and transferred to a customs area from where they were deposited in a sealed warehouse, or
funduq, until the duties and fees were paid. The amount imposed varied, usually five or ten percent. The Tunis
customs service was a stratified bureaucracy. At its head was often a member of the ruling nobility or
musharif, called
al-Caid, who not only managed the staff collecting
duties but also might negotiate commercial agreements, conclude treaties, and act as judge in legal disputes involving foreigners. Tunis exported grain, dates, olive oil, wool and leather, wax, coral, salt fish, cloth, carpets, arms, and also perhaps black slaves. Imports included cabinet work, arms, hunting birds, wine, perfumes, spices, medical plants, hemp, linen, silk, cotton, many types of cloth, glass ware, metals, hardware, and jewels.
Islamic law during this era had developed a specific institution to regulate community morals, or
hisba, which included the order and security of
public markets, the supervision of market transactions, and related matters. The urban marketplace [Arabic
souk, pl.
iswak] was generally a street of shops selling the same or similar commodities (vegetables, cloth, metalware, lumber, etc.). The city official charged with these responsibilities was called the
muhtasib. To achieve public order in the urban markets, the
muhtasib would enforce fair commercial dealing (merchants truthfully quoting the local
price to rural people, honest
weights and measures, but not quality of goods nor price
per se), keep roadways open, regulate the safety of building construction, and monitor the metal value of existing
coinage and the minting of new coin (gold dinars and silver dirhems were minted at Tunis). The authority of the
muhtasib, with his group of assistants, was somewhere between a
qadi (judge) and the police, or on other occasions perhaps between a public prosecutor (or trade commissioner) and the mayor (or a high city official). Often a leading judge or
mufti held the position. The
muhtasib did not hear contested
litigation, but nonetheless could prescribe the pain and humiliation of up to 40 lashes, remand to
debtor's prison, order a shop closed, or expel an offender from the city. However, the civic authority of the
muhtasib did not extend into the countryside. Beginning in the 13th century, from
al-Andalus came Muslim and Jewish immigrants with appreciated talents, e.g., trade connections, agricultural techniques, manufacture, and arts (see below,
Society and culture). Yet unfortunately general prosperity was not steady over the centuries of Hafsid rule; there was a sharp economic decline starting in the mid-fourteenth century due to a variety of factors (e.g., agriculture, and the Sahara trade). Under the amir Abu al-'Abbas (1370–1394), Hafsid participation in the Mediterranean trade began to decline, while early
corsair raiding activity commenced. ==Ibn Khaldun==