Same-sex love can sometimes be difficult to differentiate in
Classical Chinese because the pronouns
he and
she were not distinguished. And like many East and Southeast Asian languages, Chinese does not have grammatical gender. Thus, poems such as
Tang dynasty poems and other
Chinese poetry may be read as either heterosexual or homosexual, neutral in that regard, depending on the context. Another complication in trying to separate heterosexual and homosexual themes in Chinese literature is that for most of Chinese history, writing was restricted to a cultivated
elite, amongst whom blatant discussion of
sex was considered vulgar. Until adopting European
values late in their history, the Chinese did not even have nouns to describe a heterosexual or homosexual person per se. Rather, people who might be directly labeled as such in other traditions would be described by veiled allusions to the actions they enjoyed, or, more often, by referring to a famous example from the past. The most common of these references to homosexuality referenced
Dong Xian and
Mizi Xia. The
Chen dynasty's
Book of Chen, records the relationship between
Emperor Wen of Chen and his favorite male lover,
Han Zigao. Chen famously said to Han: "People say I am destined to be an Emperor, if it comes true, you will become my queen." Outside the tomb of Chen, discovered in 2013, two statues of
pixiu were found, unlike the usual male-and-female design, as both are male and are believed to represent Emperor Chen and Han Zigao. The
Tang dynasty "Poetical Essay on the Supreme Joy" is another good example of the allusive nature of Chinese writing on sexuality. This manuscript sought to present the "supreme joy" (
sex) in every form known to the author; the chapter on homosexuality comes between chapters on sex in Buddhist monasteries and sex between peasants. It is the earliest surviving manuscript to mention homosexuality, but it does so through phrases such as "cut sleeves in the imperial palace", "countenances of linked jade", and "they were like
Lord Long Yang", phrases which would not be recognizable as speaking of sexuality of any kind to someone who was not familiar with the literary tradition. While these conventions make explicit mentions of homosexuality rare in Chinese literature in comparison to the Greek or Japanese traditions, the allusions which do exist are given an exalted air by their frequent comparison to former Golden Ages and imperial favorites. A
Han dynasty scholar describes in
Garden of Stories the official Zhuang Xin making a nervous pass at his lord, Xiang Cheng of
Chu. The ruler is nonplussed at first, but Zhuang justifies his suggestion through allusion to a chancellor who received the confessions of a fisherman by singing a
song. At that, "Lord Xiang Cheng also received Zhuang Xin's hand and promoted him." A remarkable aspect of traditional Chinese literature is the prominence of same-sex friendship.
Bai Juyi is one of many writers who wrote dreamy, lyrical poems to male friends about shared experiences. He and fellow scholar-bureaucrat
Yuan Zhen made plans to retire together as Taoist recluses once they had saved enough funds, but Yuan's death kept that dream from being fulfilled. Other works depict less
platonic relationships. A
Ming dynasty rewriting of a very early
Zhou dynasty legend recounts a passionate male relationship between
Pan Zhang & Wang Zhongxian, which is equated to heterosexual
marriage, and which continues even beyond death. The daring 17th-century author
Li Yu combined tales of passionate love between men with brutal violence and cosmic revenge.
Dream of the Red Chamber, one of China's
Four Great Classical Novels from the
Qing dynasty, has scenes that depict men engaging in both same-sex and opposite-sex acts. In the literary works of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the
Yellow Emperor was considered to be the creator of homosexuality, while
Laozi was regarded as the originator of the
Daoist art of the bedchamber of male homosexuality. There is a tradition of clearly
erotic literature, which is less known. It is supposed that most such works have been purged in the periodic book burnings that have been a feature of Chinese history. However, isolated manuscripts have survived. Chief among these is the anthology "
Bian er chai" (), a series of four short stories in five chapters each, of passion and seduction. The first short story,
Chronicle of a Loyal Love, involves a twenty-year-old academician chasing a fifteen-year-old scholar and a bevy of adolescent valets. In another, "Qing Xia Ji" (), the protagonist, Zhang, a valiant soldier with two warrior wives, is seduced by his younger friend Zhong, a remarkable arrangement as it is stereotypically the older man who takes the initiative with a boy. The work appeared in a single edition sometime between 1630 and 1640. More recently,
Ding Ling, an author of the 1920s in China, was a prominent and controversial feminist author, and it is generally agreed that she had lesbian (or at least bisexual) content in her stories. Her most famous piece is "
Miss Sophia's Diary", a seminal work in the development of a voice for women's sexuality and sexual desire. Additionally, a contemporary author,
Wong Bik-Wan, writes from the lesbian perspective in her story "She's a Young Woman and So Am I" (). Author
Pai Hsien-yung created a sensation by
coming out of the closet in Taiwan, and by writing about gay life in
Taipei in the 1960s and 70s. Same-sex love was also celebrated in Chinese art, many examples of which have survived the various traumatic political events in recent Chinese history. Though no large statues are known to still exist, many hand scrolls and silk paintings can be found in private collections. ==Gay, lesbian and queer culture in contemporary mainland China==