Early opposition 1979 revolution Following the
Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the establishment of the
Islamic Republic, opposition to the new political order soon emerged. On 8 March 1979, coinciding with
International Women's Day, thousands of women and supporters
demonstrated in
Tehran and other cities against proposals by the new authorities to enforce
compulsory Islamic dress for women in public. The demonstrations continued for several days and became one of the earliest large-scale public protests against policies introduced by the post-revolutionary government. On 14 June 1980,
Ruhollah Khomeini called for the "
Islamisation" of universities and the removal of what he described as
Western and
secular influences from Iran's higher education system. This directive led to the
Iranian Cultural Revolution, during which universities were closed from 1980 to 1983 while curricula were revised and academic staff and students were screened for ideological conformity. During this period, numerous academics, students, and administrators were dismissed or prevented from continuing their studies or employment on political or religious grounds. In the years immediately following the revolution, a range of political organisations sought to mobilise support among students and young people, including the
People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran (MEK). Universities became important arenas of political contestation between supporters of the Islamic Republic and various opposition groups. The Cultural Revolution and broader efforts to reshape cultural and political life in accordance with
Islamic principles contributed to restrictions on secular and left-wing organisations and provoked periodic protests within academic and intellectual circles.
1980 election tensions On the final day of the elections,
Massoud Rajavi met with President
Abolhassan Banisadr and complained that members and supporters of the
Islamic Republican Party (IRP) were intimidating voters, disrupting campaign activities, and attacking opposition supporters. According to accounts from the MEK, incidents included the disruption of rallies, assaults on campaign workers, and interference with ballot boxes. Following the elections, the MEK leadership concluded that it possessed sufficient support to function as a political opposition, but that the ruling establishment would not permit it to operate freely. Tensions subsequently escalated between the MEK and the IRP, while the organisation initially refrained from direct criticism of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Revolutionary institutions aligned with the new government increasingly restricted the activities of the MEK and other opposition groups.
Crackdown and escalation of violence After the dismissal and impeachment of President Abolhassan Banisadr by the
Islamic Consultative Assembly in June 1981, the MEK called for
nationwide demonstrations against the government on 20 June 1981. Large crowds gathered in several cities, estimates have suggested that the Tehran demonstration drew hundreds of thousands of participants. The protests were
forcibly dispersed by security forces and pro-government groups, and the authorities subsequently launched a broad crackdown on the MEK and other opposition organisations. The events of June 1981 marked a turning point in the conflict between the Islamic Republic and armed opposition groups, leading to a period of violence, arrests, and executions during the early 1980s. The protests became part of the
Iranian Green Movement, At the time, the unrest was described by some observers as the largest in Iran since the 1979 Revolution. During this period, Iranian women gained an increasingly prominent role in opposition activism, including campaigns against the country's
mandatory hijab laws. In December 2017, a video of a woman removing and waving her hijab on a street in
Tehran circulated widely on social media. The act inspired a series of similar protests in subsequent months, referred to as the
Girls of Revolution Street.
Opposition Unity In November 2018, ten Iranian opposition organisations signed a joint memorandum of understanding intended to demonstrate unity despite internal divisions and to reaffirm their support for the overthrow of the Islamic Republic. The signatories expressed support for establishing a
parliamentary democracy and for the
separation of religion and state. The groups included the
Republican Movement of Iran,
Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan,
Kurdistan Democratic Party,
Komalah,
Union of People's Fedaian of Iran,
Komala of the Toilers of Kurdistan, , Ahvaz Democratic Solidarity Party, Provisional Council of Left Socialists of Iran and the Democratic Alliance On 12 June 2019, the tenth anniversary of the
2009 Iranian presidential election, 14 opposition activists based both inside and outside Iran signed an open letter known as the
Statement of 14 Political Activists. The statement proposed a series of political and civil demands, including greater protection for
women's rights, increased
independence between the branches of government, amendments to the
Constitution of Iran, and the resignation of
supreme leader Ali Khamenei. Similar letters were published by other activists in August 2019, leading to a number of arrests. In October 2020,
Reza Pahlavi issued a message titled "New Pact", emphasising the rejection of the monopoly of power. He called for stronger connections between acts of
civil disobedience throughout the country, including protests and
strikes. He also called on all pro-democracy political forces to set aside their differences and unite for the transition from the Islamic Republic.
Abdulla Mohtadi, Secretary General of the
Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan and a member of the , considered this message a positive first step, but did not consider it sufficient for unity among the opposition.
Mojtaba Vahedi viewed Pahlavi's message positively, and commended his opposition to
individual rule; however, Vahedi criticised Pahlavi's claim about his lack of desire for political power, asserting that political power is needed to implement political activity. He further called on Pahlavi to deal with those who create discord among the Iranian opposition to avoid prolonging the
Islamic Republic. Ammar Maleki, a professor of political science in the Netherlands, assessed this move as positive and promising, but believed that more practical action is required. On 3 February 2023, former
Prime Minister and
reformist leader of the
Green Revolution Mir-Hossein Mousavi called for a referendum on an end to
clerical rule, stating that "he no longer supports the current
Islamic Republic constitution". Over 400 political activists and journalists signed a statement where Mousavi called for the creation of a
constituent assembly and a new constitution, believing that "with the current social awakening, and the society's disillusionment with reforms within the current political structure, there is no other way than allowing the people to decide their own destiny." This shift brings Mousavi in line with other opposition voices in its call for transition away from the Islamic Republic, and has support from Pahlavi, who reiterated the need for unity among opponents of the Islamic Republic government. Iran's top
Sunni cleric
Abdolhamid Ismaeelzahi also supported the initiative, saying, "Mousavi showed that he understood the realities of society. It's time for other politicians and
ulema to think about saving the country and see the facts." On 10 February 2023, the
Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) hosted a conference called the , gathering major Iranian opposition groups to discuss a transition path for the creation of a secular and democratic Iran. Attendees of the summit included actresses
Nazanin Boniadi and
Golshifteh Farahani, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate
Shirin Ebadi, activists
Masih Alinejad and Dr.
Hamed Esmaeilion; former soccer captain Ali Karimi, former
Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi, and Kurdish leader
Abdullah Mohtadi. The creation of the group was announced shortly afterwards, with a stated goal of supporting justice and an
independent judiciary, along with the overthrow of the
Islamic Republic of Iran to realise democracy and human rights in Iran. In early March 2023, opposition groups published the "", nicknamed the
Mahsa Charter after
Mahsa Amini. This effort received some attention from the press, and is seeking support from the international community. Due to his position as heir to the
House of Pahlavi, Pahlavi emphasises his role "in this process of transition is to be of help to maintain a smooth process — to maximise the participation of democratic forces in this process", and that whoever the Iranians then elect in a free and open referendum is up to them. On 9 March 2023, five opposition groups announced the creation of , a political coalition to advance the goal of establishing a "secular democratic republic in Iran". The coalition was created from
United Republicans of Iran, National Front of Iran—Europe, , , and the . In December 2025,
hyperinflation of the
Iranian rial caused economic hardship in the country, leading to widespread discontent and resulted in the
2025–2026 Iranian protests. By 8 January 2026, the uprising had spread to all 31 provinces, with the
Institute for the Study of War recording over 340 distinct protests in a single week. A nationwide general strike paralyzed major commercial centers, including the
Grand Bazaar of Tehran,
Tabriz, and
Isfahan. In response to the unrest, the Iranian government implemented a total internet blackout and deployed ground forces from the
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps to suppress demonstrators, particularly in
Kurdistan and
Kermanshah. Reports indicated that protesters had taken control of municipal buildings in several western cities. In response to the unrest,
Maryam Rajavi stated that Iran has entered an irreversible crisis, with decades of repression and corruption leaving the government weakened and facing growing public discontent. She said protests that began in late 2025 spread nationwide due to inflation, currency collapse, resource shortages, and poverty. According to Rajavi, regional setbacks, low electoral participation, and widespread dissatisfaction have eroded the regime's social base, while an organised resistance and younger protesters are increasingly challenging both religious and monarchical rule. On 17 June 2025, Reza Pahlavi declared the Iranian regime "in the process of collapsing" as
Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei went into hiding amidst the
Twelve-Day War. He then called on the Iranian people to "rise" and "reclaim" Iran, and presented a 100-day transition blueprint in the case of regime collapse. Two days later, Pahlavi confirmed to
bipartisan members of the
U.S. House of Representatives that he "does not seek power", but rather "to fulfil a duty to help lead this transition". The following day, Pahlavi confirmed through social media that discussions had started regarding a post-regime transition. On 22 June, following
American airstrikes on
Iranian nuclear facilities, Pahlavi urged Supreme Leader Khamenei to step down. He again reiterated that he does not seek power, but only to "help our great nation navigate through this critical hour towards stability, freedom and justice". On 26 July 2025,
Reza Pahlavi hosted a conference of opposition activists in Munich. He claimed that at least 50,000 officials from inside Iran's government and military registered through a secure channel to coordinate the ousting of the
Iranian government. According to an analysis from
Robert Kaplan of the
Center for a New American Security, Iran's natural borders makes itself distinct from many
Arab states as the country was untouched by
European border drawing, and is a civilisational cultural sphere similar to
China and
Greece. Kaplan believes this factor would allow Iran to "avoid the chaos that accompanied the yearnings for democracy in such an artificially drawn state as
Iraq". He also believes that Iran is the "Middle East's geopolitical pivot point", and with a large and educated population, the country under a "more liberal regime" will have major influence on
Mesopotamia to the west and
Central Asia to the east. On 31 July 2025, the
National Council of Resistance of Iran organized a rally in Rome, where Maryam Rajavi proposed the overthrow of the Islamic Republic and the establishment of a democratic, non-nuclear state. The event drew support from notable Western political figures. During the
2025–2026 Iranian protests, large-scale demonstrations were reported inside Iran and across the diaspora. Hundreds of thousands of members of the
Iranian diaspora participated in
rallies in European and North American cities expressing support for regime change and a democratic transition.
Iran International estimated at least 1.5 million protestors in Tehran, as well as thousands in multiple other cities. In exile, Pahlavi has remained a symbol for monarchists; and while some remember his family's rule as a period of modernisation, others associate it with censorship, repression, and the abuses of
SAVAK. Despite efforts such as his symbolic 1980 coronation in Cairo and later attempts to form opposition coalitions like the National Council of Iran for Free Elections in 2013, critics argue these moves have had limited practical impact and at times conflicted with his message of democratic reform. In July 2025, Pahlavi claimed that over 50,000 officials from Iran's government and security forces registered on a platform he created to coordinate efforts to topple the regime and establish a secular democratic state, as he sought to unify a broad opposition coalition despite criticism of his leadership. Following the
2025-26 Iranian protests, Pahlavi increased his diplomatic and media engagement, holding meetings with international journalists, policymakers, and political figures, and promoting a transitional roadmap. Several observers noted that Pahlavi emerged as one of the most visible opposition figures during the uprising. Maryam Rajavi called for the overthrow of Iran's ruling system following the
2026 Iran war, proposing a plan for a six-month transitional administration leading to free elections, separation of religion and state, gender equality, and a non-nuclear Iran. == Major parties and organisations ==