Europe was wracked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty by the members of the anti-French coalitions. Napoleon was finally defeated and reactionaries took over France. Even so, there were many deep results in terms of political ideas and institutions.
French emigration To escape political tensions and save their lives, a number of individuals, mostly men, emigrated from France. Many settled in neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), and quite a few went to the United States. The presence of these thousands of Frenchmen of varying socioeconomic backgrounds who had just fled a hotbed of revolutionary activity posed a problem for the nations that extended refuge to the migrants. The fear was that they brought with them a plot to disrupt the political order, which did lead to increased regulation and documentation of the influx of immigrants in neighboring countries. Still, most nations such as Britain remained magnanimous and welcomed the French.
French conquests In foreign affairs, the French Army at first was quite successful. It conquered the
Austrian Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the
Dutch Republic (the present Netherlands), and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and the French Army became trapped in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris. Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's
Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the
Ligurian Republic. The
Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The
Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it. In 1805 he formed the
Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the
Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the
Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: :For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality. Nationalism was emphasized by historian
Carlton J. H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III). The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.
Britain At the beginning of the Revolution, Britain supported the new
constitutional monarchy in France, up until the regicide of
Louis XVI. The majority of the British establishment was vehemently opposed to the revolution. Britain, guided by
Pitt the Younger, led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and the removal of
Napoleon Bonaparte culminated with the (temporary) restoration of the Bourbons.
Edmund Burke wrote
Reflections on the Revolution in France, a pamphlet notable for its defense of the principle of constitutional monarchy; the events surrounding the
London Corresponding Society were an example of the fevered times.
Ireland In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by the
Protestant Ascendancy to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the
Society of United Irishmen consisting of both Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. These efforts culminated in the
Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was quickly suppressed. This revolt is seen as the foundation for
Irish republicanism, which eventually led to the independence and
partition of Ireland and the establishment of an
Irish republic.
Germany German reaction to the Revolution swung from favorable at first to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas,
the end of guilds, of serfdom and of the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. There were enemies as well, as the royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the
execution of the French king and the onset of
the Terror disillusioned the "Bildungsbürgertum" (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion. , composed of client states under Napoleon's control, 1806 to 1813; most German states belonged except Prussia (in the northeast) and Austria (in the southeast). The map text is in German After Russia was humiliated by Napoleon opinion swung against France and stimulated and shaped German nationalism. France took direct control of the Rhineland 1794–1814 and radically and permanently liberalized the government, society and economy. The French swept away centuries' worth of restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).
Poland When the French invaded Russia, Prussia and Austria, Napoleon carved out a Polish state allied to the French known as The Duchy of Warsaw, the Polish had had their first glimpse of independence for 200 years since the partitions of Poland by Russia Austria and Prussia. This also led to an increase in Polish nationalism that would persist throughout the 19th and 20th century.
Switzerland The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "
Helvetic Republic" (1798–1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place. Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. Alois Von Reding, a powerful Swiss general, led an army of 10,000 men from the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden against the French. This resulted in the Swiss regaining control of Lucerne, however due to the sheer greatness in size of the French army, Von Reding's movement was eventually suppressed. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideals steadily declined, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion. The instability of France resulted in the creation of two different revolutionary groups with different ideologies of revolt: The aristocrats, seeking the restoration of the Old Swiss Confederacy and a section of the population wanting a coup. Furthermore, Switzerland became a battleground between the armies of France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, this instability, frequent coups within the government and the eventual Bourla-papey forced Napoleon to sign the Act of Medallion which led to the fall of the Helvetic Republic and the restoration of the Confederacy. The long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin: :It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works. :
Belgium French invaded the territory of modern-day Belgium and controlled it between 1794 and 1814. The French imposed reforms and incorporated the territory into France. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.
Antwerp regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business center. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the
Industrial Revolution on the Continent.
Netherlands France turned the Netherlands into a puppet state that had to pay large indemnities.
Denmark, Norway and Sweden The Kingdom of Denmark (which included Norway) adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750 and 1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and power shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederik VI) and reform-oriented landowners. In contrast to Old Regime France, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, serfdom was abolished and civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well-organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century. In Sweden, King
Gustav III (reigned 1771–92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes. When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother
Charles became regent, but real power was with
Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under
King Gustav IV Adolf, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals,
Bernadotte, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44), and his realm included Norway, taken from Denmark in 1814.
Russia The Russian public were interested in the French Revolution from its very beginning in 1789. However, strict censorship, absence of political activity in Russia at the time, and the overall low education of the general populace diminished the effects of the revolution regarding cultural and political life, in contrast to other countries. It was not until the late 19th century where the French Revolution became a major discussion topic in Russian politics, with all political groups sharing interest and attention to it. Early reactions to the French Revolution were generally hostile.
Catherine the Great, who reigned at the time, reacted with horror at the French Revolution. This was notable given that she had held quite liberal views for a Russian monarch and had correspondence with leading French intellectuals such as
Voltaire. She ended up abandoning her liberal standing and both disdained and feared the Revolution. She had the novel
Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow written by
Alexander Radishchev burned as she believed it dangerously promoted the French Revolution and even sent Radischev to exile in
Siberia. Radischev had also previously rejected serfdom and was a known social critic, which contributed to Catherine and the court's suspicion of his character and eventual exile. Many Russian intellectuals held different views on why the French Revolution began.
Nikolai Fyodorov saw
sexuality as a key factor behind the French Revolution; in his book,
The Philosophy of the Common Task, he viewed sexuality as a "demonic" force driving humanity to revolution and war, listing the French Revolution as an example. Leading editor and art critic of
Novoye Vremya, Fedor Bulgakov, approached the French Revolution in a similar context, but he also saw faulty advice and bad luck as other partial reasons for the downfall of the French monarchy. Other Novoye Vremya contributors described the sexuality mentioned by Fyodrov and Bulgakov as a destructive phenomenon that plagued the French gentry with absolute cynicism, causing the monarchs to become effeminate and helping in their downfall in the revolution. According to these contributors, the entire 18th century was marked by "insane profligacy". The
Reign of Terror was also partially explained by French sexuality, with desires to be successful lovers driving the revolutionaries to gain power. On the other hand, intellectuals like
Nikolay Danilevsky and
Leo Tolstoy believed that violence was the main cause of the French Revolution, related to their beliefs about Western violence. Danilevsky, using notable
scientific racism in his works, incorporated the French Revolution heavily. In his work,
Russia and Europe: A Look at the Cultural and Political Relations of the Slavic World to the Romano-German World, he viewed
Russians and
Europeans as two separate species, with Europeans being a naturally violent species. According to Danilevsky, this is why the European French had started the revolution. Danilevsky also believed this explained their "inherent cruelty" during the
Napoleonic Wars. In Tolstoy's case, he had witnessed a guillotine execution in Paris, which is thought to have led to him reading
Joseph de Maistre, interpreting his works in a way that made it seem like only the west (including France) was "cruel" and "bellicose". This explains why in
War and Peace, Napoleon and his officers are portrayed as being entirely indifferent to the suffering of civilians and soldiers, even of their own. ==Impact outside Europe==