Background and early contacts (1876-1880) promoted Italian colonialism in Africa in the late 1800s.
Cesare Correnti organized an expedition under the
Società Geografica Italiana in 1876. The next year, the travel journal
L’Esploratore was established by Manfredo Camperio. The "Società di Esplorazioni Commerciali in Africa" was created in 1879, with the Italian industrial establishment involved as well. The "Club Africano", which three years later became the "Società Africana D’Italia", was also established in Somalia in 1880.
Treaties of protection and trade (1888-1891) In late 1888, Sultan
Yusuf Ali Kenadid sent a treaty request to Italy to make the
Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian
protectorate. The treaty was signed on February 8, 1889. His rival Boqor
Osman Mahamuud signed a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own
Majeerteen Sultanate (Majeerteenia) on April 7, 1889. Both rulers had entered into the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist goals, with Sultan Kenadid looking to use Italy's support in his ongoing power struggle with Boqor Osman over the Majeerteen Sultanate, as well as in a separate conflict with the
Hiraab Imamate, who was already facing serious decline, over an area to the south of
Hobyo. In signing the agreements, the rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers to help ensure the continued independence of their territories. The Italians, for their part, were interested in the largely arid territory mainly because of its
ports, which could grant them access to the strategically important
Suez Canal and the
Gulf of Aden. The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the sultanates' respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions. The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the sultanates' and their own interests.
Sheekh Ahmed Gabyow, also known as Sheekh Gabyow, recited this poem at the end of June 1891 after the battles of
Cadale and
Warsheikh. The killing of Zavagli along with 60 Italian colonial troops was said to have been the first call for
Somali nationalism.
Creation of Italian outposts on the Banaadir coast The Italian government tasked its consul at Zanzibar, captain Filonardi, to create colonial outposts on the Banaadir coast. The port of
Adale was occupied in February 1891 and the location was renamed
Itala. This began Italy's territorial occupation in Somalia. The governments of Rome and London agreed on the borders of their respective zones of influence with various protocols (such agreements continued to be made in the following years, with an Anglo-Italian border protocol signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging that
Buraan fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration). Furthermore, the commander of the
Staffetta deposed the local chief and captured leaders of the town. In the territories it administered, the Filonardi company was given the difficult task of increasing trade and customs revenues, fighting slavery, and controlling the local
walis (governors) and tribes. Another expedition by Filonardi occupied Giumbo on May 1, 1895. As the sub-concession to Filonardi expired, a new contract entrusted the management of the ports for 48 years to the "Italian Benadir Commercial Company", following a transitional period under a provisional administration led by Consul Cecchi. However, in November 1896, while on a pleasure trip, Consul
Antonio Cecchi [it], the Societá del Benadir administrator and also the de facto governor of Southern Somaliland, and his lieutenants, were ambushed at Lafoole, a small village a few kilometres from
Afgooye, south of
Muqdisho, by
Biimaal and
Wa'daan fighters, who massacred 14 of the Italians, including Cecchi.The Biimaal and Wa'daan launched a joint expeditionary force against Italians during that period. In the 1890s, Italian-occupied
Marka was the centre of the
Bimal culture. This sparked the beginning of conflict and a chain of attacks against the Italians by the
Bimaal,
Wa’daan,
Geledi, and various other Somali clans. under the leadership of Sheikh Abdi Gafle and Ma’alin Mursal Abdi Yusuf, two prominent local Islamic teachers in Marka from the Bimal clan. These clans harboring a strong anti-colonist sentiment would represent the core of the initial Somali resistance against Italian colonialism. In 1905, Italian successes at Bula-Iach (19 June), Gilib (26 August) and Mellet (14 October) forced a part of the Bimals to submit, but others continued to resist. In February 1907, a large meeting of Bimaal warriors was held in Moialo, near Merca. Italian forces, led by lieutenant Streva, marched against them and set Moialo ablaze. An Italian column, forming a square, was attacked by approximately 2,500 Bimaals. The resulting battle of Danane (10 February 1907) ended with an Italian victory. Italian officer Presenti was wounded in action. More than 100 Bimaals were killed and even more were wounded. Shekh Abdi Abiker retreated beyond the Shabelle into the territory of the Intera, where he later sent 100 men and 40 camels to the Mullah to obtain more weapons. Hostilities resumed in 1908. Italians under Captain Vitali won the battles of Dongab (2 March), Gilib (400 Bimaal casualties) and Mellet (7 march), while Italian ships bombarded various localities, but hundreds of Bimaals blockaded Merca again. The block came to an end with the expedition led by major Di Giorgio, who defeated a Dervish-Bimal coalition in two battles at Mellet (11-12 July, over 1000 casualties) and the
Wa'daan at Merere (30 August), where rebel ships were sunk. Thus, Afgoy was occupied by the Italians (3 September). Shortly after, however, Bimaals destroyed the villages of Res and Curare, threatening Afgoy. The troops of Di Giorgio crossed the river and, forming a square, defeated a Bimaal assault in a forest at Hararei (25 September; 80 Bimals and 4 Askaris died in the battle). The rebel centre of Balàd was destroyed. The area was pacified with a final campaign by major Rossi, who, once again leading a square formation, defeated 1,000 Dervishes in the battles of Bulàlo (22 November) and Sengagle (27 November). As a result of these campaigns, Italian Somaliland was expanded to include Afgoy, Maregh, Barire, Mellèt, Danane and Balàd. For the first time, the entirety of the low Shabelle region was under Italian control.
Dervish wars , leader of the Dervish riding a camel alongside his followers showing Italian Somaliland and
British Somaliland. In 1912 the Dervishes received intelligence that the Italians were gradually expanding in South Somalia and were closing in on
Hiraan, an area free of colonial presence. The Italians' most forward positions were in
Mahaday, just above
Jowhar. On 3 March 1913, the
Dervish movement clashed with the Italian colonial army around
Beledweyne in the
Hiraan region of Italian Somaliland, at the
Battle of Hiraan. A Dervish force of approximately 900 men, led by
Mohamed Abdullah Hassan and commanders including Isman Boos and
Ismail Mire, successfully resisted the Italian offensive. The Italians ultimately abandoned their advance, retreating from the area. This retreat effectively ceded control of the Hiraan region in southern Somalia to the Dervishes, which later fortified its position by building new forts: Aammiin and Laba Mataanood. The
Hiraan region was finally put under the Dervish banner in 1913. During
World War I, the Dervishes, with minimal support from the
Ottoman Empire, conducted raids into Italian-controlled territories, but were stopped by the garrisons of
Bulo Burti and
Tiyeglow. On the 27th of March 1916, due to the betrayal of Somali irregulars hired into the service of the Italians, the Dervishes sacked the fort of Bulo Burti. Italian officer Battistella was killed in this attack. After the recapture of Bulo Burti, an Italian column under captain Silvestri defeated and dispersed the Dervishes in the battle of
Beledweyne, on the 16th of January 1917, which was the main base of operations against Italian Somaliland. The Italian column had light casualties, 6 dead and 4 wounded, while the Dervishes suffered 50 dead and numerous wounded. Britain agreed to cede the
Jubaland region to Italian Somaliland. The transfer occurred in 1925. The British retained control of the southern half of the partitioned Jubaland territory, which was later called the
Northern Frontier District (NFD).
Campaign of the sultanates The relationship between the Sultanate of Hobyo and Italy soured when Sultan Kenadid refused the Italians' proposal to allow a
British contingent of troops to disembark in his sultanate so that they might then pursue their battle against the Somali religious and nationalist leader Muhammad Abdullah Hassan's Dervish forces. Viewed as too much of a threat, Sultan Kenadid was eventually exiled to
Aden in
Yemen and then to
Eritrea. His son
Ali Yusuf Kenadid succeeded him on the throne. In 1924, Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi adopted a policy of disarmentation of the northern Somali sultanates. Sultan Ali Yusuf Kenadid was thereafter in turn exiled. With the arrival of Governor
Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change in
Somalia,
Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the majority of
Benadir territory. Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s, and the rise of
fascism in Europe, on 1925,
Mussolini gave the green light to
De Vecchi to start the takeover of the northern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated. The
Dubats colonial troops and the
Zaptié gendarmerie were extensively used by De Vecchi during these military campaigns. However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.
Italian colonial development (1920-1936) , founder of
Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi (
Jowhar), the main agricultural colony in Italian Somaliland in the
Vittorio di Africa farm area, 1927 In 1920, a member of the
Italian royal family,
The Duca degli Abruzzi, who was also a famous explorer, would establish the
Società Agricola Italo-Somala (SAIS) in order to explore the agricultural potential of the territory. That same year, the
Duca founded the Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi ("Villabruzzi";
Jowhar) as an agricultural settlement in Italian Somaliland. The area produced sugar, bananas and cotton. After
World War I in 1925,
Trans-Juba, which was then a part of
British East Africa, was ceded to Italy. This concession was purportedly a reward for the Italians having joined the Allies in
World War I. In 1926, the agricultural colony of
Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi comprised 16 villages, with some 3,000 Somali and 200 Italian inhabitants, and was connected by a 114 km new
railway to Mogadishu. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion. The
fascist government of Italy main goal was to colonise
Italian Somalia's southern tribes and northern Muslims sultanates. After the end of the
Dervish war, this event altered Italy's approach to the colony. The fascist government ordered occupation of all Somalia by force through the
Royal Corps of Colonial Troops, which led to armed resistance movements across the country. Following its establishment,
Umberto,
Prince of Piedmont, the
heir apparent to the Italian throne, made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu. To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The
Mogadishu International Airport was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region. In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial army, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Jowhar and
Janale. In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar,
Adale (
Itala), Janale,
Jamame and
Kismayo.
Italian East Africa (1936–1941) in 1936 (British Somaliland annexed in 1940 after the
Italian invasion) in the foreground, the
Catholic Cathedral at the centre, and the Arch monument to commemorate
King Umberto I By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians. The then
Prime Minister of Italy,
Benito Mussolini, regarded
Greater Somalia (
La Grande Somalia) as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire on the continent. He viewed himself less as an invader than as a liberator of the occupied Somali territories, including the
Ogaden region, to which the
Ethiopian Empire laid claim. On this basis, he justified his plan to invade Ethiopia. In October 1935, the southern front of the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War was launched into Ethiopia from Italian Somaliland. The Italian
General Rodolfo Graziani commanded the invasion forces in the south. Over 40,000 Somali troops served in the war, mostly as combat units. They backed up the over 80,000 Italians serving alongside them at the start of the offensive. Many of the Somalis were veterans from serving in
Italian Libya. During the invasion of Ethiopia, Mogadishu served as a chief supply base. In June 1936, after the war ended, Italian Somaliland became part of
Italian East Africa (
Africa Orientale Italiana) forming the
Somalia Governorate. The new colony of the
Italian Empire also included
Ethiopia and
Eritrea. To commemorate the victory, an
Arch of Triumph was constructed in Mogadishu. From 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to
Addis Ababa. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built. Since the start of the colony, many Somali troops fought in the so-called
Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali. The soldiers were enrolled as
Dubats,
Zaptié and
Bande irregolari. During
World War II, these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in
Libya and
Eritrea. The Zaptié were considered the best: they provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian
Viceroy (
Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptìé plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the
Carabinieri. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major
Alfredo Serranti that defended
Culqualber (Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the
Allies. After heavy fighting, all the Italian Carabinieri, including the Somali troops, received full military honors from the British. 's Boero Building in
Mogadishu (1940) In 1935, there were over 50,000
Italian settlers living in Italian Somaliland, constituting 5% of the territory's population. Of those, 20,000 resided in Mogadishu (called officially in Italian
Mogadiscio), representing around 40% of the city's 50,000 residents. Mogadishu was an administrative capital of Italian East Africa, and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition. Other Italian settler communities were concentrated in Jowhar,
Adale (
Itala),
Janale,
Jamame, and
Kismayo. These figures do not include the more than 220,000 Italian soldiers stationed throughout Italian Somaliland during the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War. The colony was also one of the most developed in Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the local inhabitants, mainly in the urban areas. By 1940, the Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi ("Villabruzzi";
Jowhar) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were Italian Somalis, and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.). In the second half of 1940, Italian troops
invaded British Somaliland, and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied Kenyan areas bordering
Jubaland around the villages of Moyale and
Buna, and
southern borders of French Somalia). The Italians obtained in this way the unification of all Somali speaking people for the first and only time in History. The subsequent attempt by the Allies to capture Italian Somaliland happened some months later (in December 1940) with Operation Appearance. In the spring of 1941, Britain also regained control of
British Somaliland and conquered all Italian Somaliland with the
Ogaden. However, until the end of summer 1943, there was an
Italian guerrilla war in all the areas of the former Italian East Africa.
British Military Administration (1941–1950) British forces occupied Italian Somaliland and militarily administered the territory as well as British Somaliland. Faced with growing Italian political pressure inimical to continued British tenure and Somali aspirations for independence, the Somalis and the British came to see each other as allies. The first modern Somali political party, the Somali Youth Club (SYC), was subsequently established in Mogadishu in 1943; it was later renamed the
Somali Youth League (SYL). The SYL evolved into the dominant party and had a moderate ideology. Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) party served as the principal opposition to the right, although its platform was generally in agreement with that of the SYL. In November 1949, the United Nations finally opted to grant Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (later Hizbia Dastur Mustaqbal Somali, or HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL), that were then agitating for independence — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.
Trust Territory of Somalia (1950–1960) In 1949, when the British military administration ended, Italian Somaliland became a
United Nations trusteeship known as the
Trust Territory of Somaliland. Under Italian administration, this trust territory lasted ten years, from 1950 to 1960, with legislative elections held in
1956 and
1959. On 1 April 1950, the
Amministrazione fiduciaria italiana della Somalia (AFIS) began its rule. A deployment of 6,500 troops landed in Somalia to assist the establishment of AFIS under the leadership of
Giovanni Fornari. Fornari's three-year tenure would mark the most difficult years of the Trusteeship. The first half of AFIS's decade long rule would be marked by animosity and conflict between the Italian authorities and the Somali Youth League. Numerous SYL officials who had gained positions of prominence during the era of
British Military Administration were either demoted, removed from their positions or imprisoned by Italian officials. These attempts to marginalize the league would lead to demonstrations across the country which were strongly repressed by the government, who had at the time come to decision not cooperate or concede to the SYL's plans for independence. In the
1956 parliamentary election, the Somali Youth League would win 54.29% of votes versus 26.01% for the nearest party, the Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali. The growing power of the SYL would lead Italian officials to take a more conciliatory stance towards the organization. The SYL would also earn 416 of the 663 seats in the 1958 municipal election, with the HDMS securing 175 seats. By the
1959 parliamentary election, SYL would capture an even greater share of votes by winning 75.58% of the total ballot.
Italian was an official language in Italian Somaliland during the Fiduciary Mandate, as well as in the first years of independence. By 1952, the majority of Somalis had some understanding of the language.
Independence (1960) On 1 July 1960, the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) and the
former British Somaliland united to form the
Somali Republic, with Mogadishu as the nation's capital. This day is celebrated as
Somalia's Independence Day. A government was formed by
Abdullahi Issa and
Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with
Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden as President of the
Somali National Assembly,
Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as
President of the Somali Republic, and
Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as
Prime Minister. On 20 July 1961,
through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new
constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. ==Governors==