First attack on La Guaira (22 October 1739) On 22 October, Vernon sent three ships commanded by Captain Thomas Waterhouse to intercept Spanish ships between
La Guaira and
Porto Bello. He decided to attack a number of vessels that he observed at La Guaira, which was controlled by the
Royal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas. The governor of the
Province of Venezuela, Brigadier Don
Gabriel de Zuloaga had prepared the port defences, and Spanish troops were well-commanded by Captain Don Francisco Saucedo. On 22 October, Waterhouse entered the port of La Guaira flying the Spanish flag. Expecting attack, the port gunners were not deceived by his
ruse; they waited until the British
squadron was within range and then simultaneously opened fire. After three hours of heavy shelling, Waterhouse ordered a withdrawal. The battered British squadron sailed to Jamaica to undertake emergency repairs. Trying later to explain his actions, Waterhouse argued the capture of a few small Spanish vessels would not have justified the loss of his men.
Capture of Portobelo (20–22 November 1739) Prior to 1739, trade between mainland Spain and its colonies was conducted only through specific ports; twice a year, outward bound ships assembled in
Cádiz and the
Flota escorted to
Portobelo or
Veracruz. One way to impact Spanish trade was by attacking or blockading these ports but as many ships carried cargoes financed by foreign merchants, the strategy also risked damaging British and neutral interests. During the 1727 to 1729
Anglo-Spanish War, the British attempted to take
Portobelo but retreated after heavy losses from disease. On 22 November 1739, Vernon attacked the port with six
ships of the line; it fell within twenty-four hours and the British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having first destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses. '' by
Samuel Scott, 1740 The victory was widely celebrated in Britain; the famous song "
Rule Britannia" was written in 1740 to mark the occasion and performed for the first time at a dinner in London honouring Vernon. The suburb of
Portobello in Edinburgh and
Portobello Road in London are among the places in Britain named after this success, while more medals were awarded for its capture than any other event in the eighteenth century. Taking a port in Spain's American empire was considered a foregone conclusion by many
Patriot Whigs and opposition
Tories. They now pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to the
Gulf of Mexico. In the longer term, the Spanish replaced the twice yearly
Flota with a larger number of smaller convoys, calling at more ports and Portobelo's economy did not recover until the building of the
Panama Canal nearly two centuries later.
First attack on Cartagena de Indias (13–20 March 1740) 1741 Following the success of Portobelo, Vernon decided to focus his efforts on the capture of
Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. Both Vernon and
Edward Trelawny, governor of Jamaica, considered the Spanish gold shipping port to be a prime objective. Since the outbreak of the war, and Vernon's arrival in the Caribbean, the British had made a concerted effort to gain intelligence on the defences of Cartagena. In October 1739, Vernon sent First Lieutenant Percival to deliver a letter to
Blas de Lezo and Don Pedro Hidalgo, governor of Cartagena. Percival was to use the opportunity to make a detailed study of the Spanish defences. This effort was thwarted when Percival was denied entry to the port. On 7 March 1740, in a more direct approach, Vernon undertook a
reconnaissance-in-force of the Spanish city. Vernon left
Port Royal in command of a squadron including
ships of the line, two
fire ships, three
bomb vessels, and
transport ships. Reaching Cartagena on 13 March, Vernon immediately landed several men to map the
topography and to reconnoitre the Spanish squadron anchored in Playa Grande, west of Cartagena. Having not seen any reaction from the Spanish, on 18 March Vernon ordered the three bomb vessels to open fire on the city. Vernon intended to provoke a response that might give him a better idea of the defensive capabilities of the Spanish. Understanding Vernon's motives, Lezo did not immediately respond. Instead, Lezo ordered the removal of guns from some of his ships, in order to form a temporary
shore battery for the purpose of
suppressive fire. Vernon next initiated an
amphibious assault, but in the face of strong resistance, the attempt to land 400 soldiers was unsuccessful. The British then undertook a three-day
naval bombardment of the city. In total, the campaign lasted 21 days. Vernon then withdrew his forces, leaving HMS
Windsor Castle and HMS
Greenwich in the vicinity, with a mission to intercept any Spanish ship that might approach.
Destruction of the fortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres (22–24 March 1740) After the destruction of Portobelo the previous November, Vernon proceeded to remove the last Spanish stronghold in the area. He attacked the
fortress of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres, in present-day
Panama on the banks of the
Chagres River, near Portobelo. The fort was defended by Spanish
patrol boats, and was armed with four guns and about thirty soldiers under Captain of Infantry Don Juan Carlos Gutiérrez Cevallos. At 3 pm on 22 March 1740, the British
squadron, composed of the ships , , and
Princess Louisa, the frigate
Diamond, the
bomb vessels
Alderney,
Terrible, and
Cumberland, the
fireships
Success and
Eleanor, and
transports Goodly and
Pompey, under command of
Vernon, began to bombard the Spanish fortress. Given the overwhelming superiority of the British forces, Captain Cevallos surrendered the fort on 24 March, after resisting for two days. Following the strategy previously applied at Porto Bello, the British destroyed the fort and seized the guns along with two Spanish patrol boats. During this time of British victories along the Caribbean coast, events taking place in Spain would prove to have a significant effect on the outcome of the largest engagement of the war. Spain had decided to replace Don Pedro Hidalgo as governor of
Cartagena de Indias. But, the new governor-designate, Lieutenant General of the Royal Armies
Sebastián de Eslava y Lazaga had first to dodge the
Royal Navy in order to get to his new post. Starting from the
Galician port of
Ferrol, the vessels
Galicia and
San Carlos set out on the journey. Hearing the news, Vernon immediately sent four ships to intercept the Spanish. They were unsuccessful in their mission. The Spanish managed to circumvent the British interceptors and entered the port of Cartagena on 21 April 1740, landing there with the new governor and several hundred veteran soldiers.
Second attack on Cartagena de Indias (3 May 1740) In May, Vernon returned to Cartagena de Indias aboard the flagship in charge of 13 warships, with the intention of bombarding the city. Lezo reacted by deploying his six
ships of the line so that the British fleet was forced into ranges where they could only make short or long shots that were of little value. Vernon withdrew, asserting that the attack was merely a manoeuver. The main consequence of this action was to help the Spanish test their defences.
Third attack on Cartagena de Indias (13 March–20 May 1741) (
Cartagena). This fortress, though incomplete during the war, was integral to Spain's effort to maintain the link with its colonies via the Atlantic
sea lanes. The largest action of the war was a major
amphibious attack launched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March 1741 against Cartagena de Indias, one of Spain's principal gold-trading ports in their colony of New Granada (today
Colombia). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish Commander
Blas de Lezo were decisive in repelling the attack. Heavy losses on the British side were due in large part to virulent tropical diseases, primarily an outbreak of
yellow fever, which took more lives than were lost in battle. The extreme ease with which the British destroyed Porto Bello led to a change in British plans. Instead of Vernon concentrating his next attack on Havana as expected, in order to conquer Cuba, he planned to attack
Cartagena de Indias. Located in Colombia, it was the main port of the Viceroyalty and main point of the
West Indian fleet for sailing to the
Iberian Peninsula. In preparation the British gathered in
Jamaica one of the largest fleets ever assembled. It consisted of 186 ships (60 more than the famous
Spanish Armada of
Philip II), bearing 2,620 artillery pieces and more than 27,000 men. Of that number, 10,000 were soldiers responsible for initiating the assault. There were also 12,600 sailors, 1,000 Jamaican slaves and macheteros, 4,000 recruits from
British America, 400 of which were from
Virginia. The latter were led by
Lawrence Washington, the older half-brother of
George Washington, future President of the United States. Colonial officials assigned Admiral Blas de Lezo to defend the fortified city. He was a marine veteran hardened by numerous naval battles in Europe, beginning with the
War of the Spanish Succession, and by confrontations with European pirates in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean, and
Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Assisting in that effort were Melchor de Navarrete and Carlos Desnaux, with a squadron of six ships of the line (the flagship vessel together with the
San Felipe, San Carlos, África, Dragón, and
Conquistador) and a force of 3,000 soldiers, 600 militia and a group of native Indian archers. Vernon ordered his forces to clear the port of all
scuttled ships. On 13 March 1741, he landed a contingent of troops under command of Major General
Thomas Wentworth and artillery to take Fort de San Luis de Bocachica. In support of that action, the British ships simultaneously opened with cannon fire, at a rate of 62 shots per hour. In turn, Lezo ordered four of the Spanish ships to aid 500 of his troops defending Desnaux's position, but the Spanish eventually had to retire to the city. Civilians were already evacuating it. After leaving Fort Bocagrande, the Spanish regrouped at
Fort San Felipe de Barajas, while Washington's Virginians took up positions in the nearby hill of La Popa. Vernon, believing the victory at hand, sent a message to Jamaica stating that he had taken the city. The report was subsequently forwarded to London, where there was much celebration. Commemorative medals were minted, depicting the defeated Spanish defenders kneeling before Vernon. The robust image of the enemy depicted in the British medals bore little resemblance to Admiral Lezo. Maimed by years of battle, he was one-eyed with limited use of one hand. On the evening of 19 April, the British mounted an assault in force upon
Castillo San Felipe de Barajas. Three columns of
grenadiers, supported by Jamaicans and several British companies, moved under cover of darkness, with the aid of an intense
naval bombardment. The British fought their way to the base of the fort's
ramparts where they discovered that the Spanish had dug deep trenches. This effectively rendered the British
scaling equipment too short for the task. The British advance was stymied since the fort's walls had not been breached, and the ramparts could not be topped. Neither could the British easily withdraw in the face of intense Spanish fire and under the weight of their own equipment. The Spanish seized on this opportunity, with devastating effect. Reversing the tide of battle, the Spanish initiated a
fixed bayonet charge at first light, inflicting heavy casualties on the British. The surviving British forces retreated to the safety of their ships. The British maintained a naval bombardment, sinking what remained of the small Spanish squadron (after Lezo's decision to
scuttle some of his ships in an effort to block the harbour entrance). The Spanish thwarted any British attempt to land another ground assault force. The British troops were forced to remain aboard ship for a month, without sufficient reserves. With supplies running low, and with the outbreak of disease (primarily
yellow fever), which took the lives of many on the crowded ships, Vernon was forced to raise the
siege on 9 May and return to Jamaica. Six thousand British died while only one thousand Spanish perished. Vernon carried on, successfully attacking the Spanish at
Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. On 5 March 1742, with the help of reinforcements from Europe, he launched an assault on
Panama City,
Panama. In 1742, Vernon was replaced by
Rear-Admiral Chaloner Ogle and returned to England, where he gave an accounting to the
Admiralty. He learned that he had been elected
MP for
Ipswich. Vernon maintained his naval career for another four years before retiring in 1746. In an active parliamentary career, Vernon advocated for improvements in naval procedures. He continued to hold an interest in naval affairs until his death in 1757. News of the defeat at Cartagena was a significant factor in the downfall of the British Prime Minister
Robert Walpole. Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort. The new government under
Lord Wilmington wanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas and into the Mediterranean. Spanish policy, dictated by the queen
Elisabeth Farnese of Parma, also shifted to a European focus, to recover lost
Spanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742, a large British fleet under
Nicholas Haddock was sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported from
Barcelona to Italy, which he failed to do having only 10 ships. With the arrival of additional ships from Britain in February 1742, Haddock successfully blockaded the Spanish coast failing to force the Spanish fleet into an action.
Lawrence Washington survived the yellow fever outbreak, and eventually retired to
Virginia. He named his estate
Mount Vernon, in honour of his former commander.
Anson expedition capture of the
Manila galleon, painted by
Samuel Scott before 1772 The success of the Porto Bello operation led the British, in September 1740, to send a squadron under Commodore
George Anson to attack
Spain's possessions in the Pacific. Before they reached the Pacific, numerous men were killed by disease, they had to outrun pursuing Spanish naval vessels, and ultimately the fleet found itself in no shape to launch any sort of attack. Anson reassembled his force in the
Juan Fernández Islands, allowing them to recuperate before he moved up the
Chilean coast, raiding the small town of
Paita. He reached
Acapulco too late to intercept the yearly
Manila galleon, which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm that forced him to dock for repairs in
Canton. After this he tried again the following year to intercept the Manila galleon. He accomplished this on 20 June 1743 off
Cape Espiritu Santo, capturing more than a million gold coins. Anson sailed home, arriving in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, having
circumnavigated the globe in the process. Less than a tenth of his forces had survived the expedition. Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his appointment as
First Lord of the Admiralty. One of his ships, , was presumed lost in the storms round
Cape Horn. The survivors would later take part in a sensational public inquiry concerning allegations of
mutiny,
cannibalism, and murder among the
Wagers crew.
Florida In 1740, the inhabitants of
Georgia launched an overland attack on the
fortified city of
St. Augustine in Florida, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led by
James Oglethorpe, the Governor of Georgia,
besieged St. Augustine for over a month before retreating, and abandoned their
artillery in the process. The failure of the
Royal Navy blockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe began preparing Georgia for an expected Spanish assault. The
Battle of Bloody Mose, where the Spanish and free black forces repelled Oglethorpe's forces at
Fort Mose, was also a part of the War of Jenkins' Ear.
French neutrality When war broke out in 1739, both Britain and Spain expected that France would join the war on the Spanish side. This played a large role in the tactical calculations of the British. If the Spanish and French were to operate together, they would have a superiority of ninety
ships of the line. In 1740, there was an
invasion scare when it was believed that a French fleet at
Brest and a Spanish fleet at
Ferrol were about to combine and launch an invasion of England. Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the bulk of their naval and land forces in or near southern England to act as a
deterrent. Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a major British victory would draw France into the war to protect the
balance of power.
Invasion of Georgia In 1742, the Spanish launched an attempt to seize the British colony of
Georgia. Manuel de Montiano commanded 2,000 troops, who were landed on
St Simons Island off the coast. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars at
Bloody Marsh and
Gully Hole Creek, forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between the colonies of Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but neither Spain nor Britain undertook offensive operations on the North American mainland.
Second attack on La Guaira (2 March 1743) in armour, one hand gestures to fortifications and a burning ship The British attacked several locations in the Caribbean with little consequence to the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic. The weakened British forces under Vernon launched an
attack against Cuba, landing in
Guantánamo Bay with a plan to march the 45 miles to
Santiago de Cuba and capture the city. Vernon clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected. Vernon remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain; he was replaced by admiral
Chaloner Ogle, who took command of a sickly fleet. Fewer than half the sailors were fit for duty. The following year, a smaller Royal Navy squadron led by commodore
Charles Knowles raided the Venezuelan coast, on 2 March 1743 attacking
La Guaira controlled by the Royal
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas whose ships had rendered assistance to the Spanish navy during War in carrying troops, arms, stores and ammunition from Spain to her colonies. Its destruction could have been a severe blow both to the Company and the Spanish Crown. After a fierce defence by Governor
Gabriel José de Zuloaga's troops, Commodore Knowles, having suffered 97 killed and 308 wounded over three days, decided to retire west before sunrise on 6 March. He decided to attack nearby
Puerto Cabello. However, despite his orders to rendezvous at
Borburata Keys — east of Puerto Cabello - the captains of the detached
Burford,
Norwich,
Assistance, and
Otter proceeded to
Curaçao. The commodore angrily followed them in. On 28 March, he sent his smaller ships to cruise off Puerto Cabello, and once his main body had been refitted, went to sea again on 31 March. He struggled against contrary winds and currents for two weeks before finally diverting to the eastern tip of
Santo Domingo by 19 April.
Merger with wider war By mid-1742, the
War of the Austrian Succession had broken out in Europe. Principally fought by
Prussia and
Austria over possession of
Silesia, the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances. The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and drew Britain and Spain's attention back to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of Jenkins' Ear. France entered the war in 1744, emphasizing the European theatre and planning an
ambitious invasion of Britain. While it ultimately failed, the threat persuaded British policymakers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home. Britain did not attempt any additional attacks on Spanish possessions. In 1745,
William Pepperrell of New England led a colonial expedition, supported by a British fleet under Commodore Peter Warren, against the French fortress of
Louisbourg on
Cape Breton Island off Canada. Pepperrell was knighted for his achievement, but Britain returned Louisbourg to the French by the
Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle in 1748. A decade later, during the
Seven Years' War (known as the
French and Indian War in the North American theatre), British forces under
Lord Jeffrey Amherst and
General Wolfe recaptured it.
Privateering The war involved privateering by both sides.
Anson captured a valuable
Manila galleon, but this was more than offset by the numerous Spanish privateering attacks on British shipping along the transatlantic
triangular trade route. They seized hundreds of British ships, looting their goods and slaves, and operated with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanish
convoys proved almost unstoppable. During the Austrian phase of the war, the British fleet attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.
Lisbon negotiations in 1748 From August 1746, negotiations began in the city of
Lisbon, in neutral Portugal, to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death of
Philip V of Spain had brought his son
Ferdinand VI to the throne, and he was more willing to be conciliatory over the issues of trade. Because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down. ==Aftermath==