Interregnum (1301–1323) from 1555 Andrew III died on January 14, 1301. His death created an opportunity for about a dozen lords, or "
oligarchs", who had by that time achieved
de facto independence of the monarch They acquired all royal castles in a number of counties where everybody was obliged either to accept their supremacy or to leave. For instance,
Matthew III Csák ruled over fourteen counties in the lands now forming Slovakia,
Ladislaus Kán administered Transylvania, and
Ugrin Csák controlled large territories between the rivers
Száva and Dráva. In Croatia the situation for the crown became even more dire, as
viceroy Paul Šubić and the
Babonić family achieved de facto independence, with Paul Šubić even minting his own coin and being called by contemporary Croatian historians as the "uncrowned king of the Croats". of the
House of Anjou At the news of Andrew III's death, viceroy Šubić invited
Charles I of Anjou, the late
Charles Martel's son, to claim the throne, who hurried to Esztergom where he was crowned king. However, most secular lords opposed his rule and proposed the throne to King
Wenceslaus II of Bohemia's
namesake son. The young Wenceslaus could not strengthen his position and renounced in favor of
Otto III, Duke of Bavaria in 1305. A
papal legate persuaded all the lords to accept Charles of Anjou's rule in 1310, but most territories remained out of royal control. Assisted by the prelates and a growing number of lesser nobles, Charles I launched a series of expeditions against the great lords. Taking advantage of the lack of unity among them, he defeated them one by one. He won his first victory in the
battle of Rozgony (present-day Rozhanovce, Slovakia) in 1312. However, the most powerful lord, Matthew Csák preserved his autonomy up until his death in 1321, while the
Babonić and
Šubić families were only subjugated in 1323.
The Angevins' monarchy (1323–1382) Charles I introduced a centralized power structure in the 1320s. Stating that "his words has the force of law", he never again convoked the Diet. because the king rarely made land grants. This practice ensured the loyalty of the
Drugeths,
Lackfis,
Szécsényis and other families who emerged in his reign. For instance, he occasionally authorized daughters of noblemen to inherit their fathers' estates, although local customs required that a deceased nobleman's inherited lands were to be transferred to his
agnates in lack of a son. Nevertheless,
Roman law never replaced customary which gave rise to the appearance of lay officials who possessed "a good command of Latin and a fair knowledge of common law" (Pál Engel). Charles I
reformed the system of royal revenues and monopolies. For instance, he imposed the "
thirtieth" (a tax on goods transferred through the kingdom's frontiers), The new mines produced around of gold and of silver annually, which made up more than 30 percent of the world's production up until the
Spanish conquest of the Americas in the 1490s. Charles I also ordered the minting of stable golden coins modelled on the
florin of
Florence. His ban on trading with uncoined gold produced shortage in the European market which lasted until his death in 1342. Following this, in 1343, the
Romanian-led
Voivodeship of Maramureș was established, which would exist until 1402. Thereafter his widow,
Elisabeth of Poland transported enormous quantities of gold to Italy in order to promote the claim of their younger son,
Andrew to the Kingdom of Naples. His brother, Louis I of Hungary accused the queen of his murder and led two campaigns against her in 1347 and 1350. Although he twice conquered her kingdom, she regained it on both occasions. The first campaign against Naples was abandoned because of the arrival of the "
Black Death". In Hungary, fewer locals fell victim to the epidemic than in Western Europe, because the kingdom was still an underpopulated territory with well nourished inhabitants. Indeed, colonization also continued in the 14th century. The new settlers mainly came from Moravia, Poland and other neighboring countries. They were customarily exempted of taxation for 16 years, which is reflected by the
lehota ("lightening") placenames in present-day Slovakia. Earlier distinctions between freemen, serfs and
udvornici disappeared in the 14th century, because all peasants had acquired the right to free movement by the 1350s. Most of them cultivated well defined parcels with a hereditary right to use it for a rent in cash and in-kind "gifts" due to the landowner. The legal position of "true noblemen" was also standardized when the idea of "one and the same liberty" was enacted in 1351. For instance, all noblemen received the right to "adjudicate all offences committed" by the peasants living in their estates (Martyn Rady). in
Zadar in
Dalmatia Most towns were still dominated by German merchants, but more and more
Croat, Hungarian and Slovak peasants arrived from the nearby villages to settle in the towns in the 14th century. Louis I's
Privilegium pro Slavis ("Privilege for the Slavs") from 1381 was the first indication of official bilingualism in a town. It ensured that the
Slovaks in
Zsolna (present-day Žilina, Slovakia) would enjoy the same privileges as the town's German burghers. The
foundation of Moldavia, a Romanian principality east of the Carpathians is also connected to these campaigns. Along the southern frontiers, Louis I compelled the Venetians to withdraw from Dalmatia in 1358 and forced a number of local rulers (including
Tvrtko I of Bosnia, and
Lazar of Serbia) to accept his suzerainty. However, his
vassals often rebelled against him in the 1360s.
Bogdan, a Romanian
voivode even achieved the independence of Moldavia.
Vladislav I of Wallachia even allied with the emerging
Ottoman Empire in 1375. He attempted, without success, to convert many of his Orthodox subjects to Catholicism by force. He expelled the Jews around 1360, but allowed them to return in 1367. New royal castles were erected, for instance, in
Visegrád,
Diósgyőr, and
Zólyom (present-day Zvolen, Slovakia) under the Angevin kings. Patricians' houses unearthed at
Sopron and other towns, frescoes and sculptures found at many places (including Esztergom and Nagyvárad) point at a flourishing Gothic architecture and art. William of Bergzabern,
Bishop of Pécs founded a university at his see in 1367, but it was closed shortly after his death in 1375.
New consolidation (1382–1437) and his queen,
Barbara of Cilli at the
Council of Constance Louis I was succeeded in 1382 by his daughter,
Mary. However, most noblemen opposed the idea of being ruled by a female monarch. He arrived in the kingdom in September 1385. They captured the queen in July 1386, but her supporters proposed the crown to her husband, Sigismund of Luxemburg. Queen Mary was soon liberated, but she never again intervened in the government. Sigismund distributed more than 50 percent of the royal estates to his supporters. Furthermore, large territories in Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia remained controlled by
Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić and Ladislaus of Naples's other supporters. When Queen Mary died childless in 1395, her sister, Queen
Jadwiga of Poland claimed the throne for herself, but Sigismund's partisans defeated her troops. In the meantime,
Stefan Lazarević of Serbia accepted the
Ottoman sultan's suzerainty, thus the Ottoman Empire's expansion reached the southern frontiers of Hungary in 1390. Sigismund decided to organize a crusade against the Ottomans. A great army consisting mainly of French knights assembled, but the crusaders were routed in the
battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The Diet of
Temesvár (present-day Timișoara, Romania) of 1397 obliged all landholders to finance the equipment of
soldiers for defensive purposes. Thereafter, all landholders provided one archer for each twenty peasant households on their estates. In the same year, Sigismund abolished former immunities of the jurisdiction of county authorities which accelerated the development of county assemblies into important institutions of local autonomy. Sigismund's open bias towards
Stibor of Stiboricz,
Hermann of Cilli and his (mostly foreign) favorites gave rise to a number of plots. For six months, the barons administered the realm in the name of the Holy Crown, "the impersonal sovereign of the kingdom" (Miklós Molnár), but finally restored Sigismund's rule. Since
Pope Boniface IX supported his opponent, Sigismund prohibited both the proclamation of papal documents without a previous royal consent and the appointment of prelates by the Holy See. He exempted many of them from internal custom duties and even invited their representatives to the Diet in 1405. The king spent more and more time abroad especially after his election
King of the Romans in 1410. This knightly order was established on the occasion of the royal troop's victory over Hrvoje Hrvatinić in 1408. Thereafter most Dalmatian towns seceded from Ladislaus of Naples, In the following decade, the republic forced the settlements on the Dalmatian coasts one by one to accept her suzerainty. (1342-1382) On the southern borders, Sigismund attempted to create a buffer zone against the Ottomans. For this purpose, he granted large estates to Stefan Lazarević of Serbia,
Mircea I of Wallachia and other neighboring rulers. Furthermore, fourteen new fortresses were erected on the Danube frontier under the auspices of the Italian
Pipo of Ozora. The first
Gypsy groups were also admitted in the kingdom because of their information on the Ottoman Empire's military and their skills in manufacturing weapons. The Ottomans occupied
Golubac Fortress in 1427 and started to regularly plunder the neighboring lands. known as
hussars. The northern regions of the kingdom (present-day Slovakia) were pillaged in almost every year by
Czech Hussites from 1428. However, Hussite ideas spread in the southern counties, mainly among the burghers of the Szerémség. Hussite preachers were also the first to
translate the Bible to Hungarian. Actually, the town became the kingdom's capital in his reign. The kingdom's defense and Sigismund's active foreign policy demanded new sources of income. For instance, the king imposed "extraordinary" taxes on the prelates and mortgaged 13 Saxon towns in the Szepesség to Poland in 1412. He regularly debased coinage which resulted in a
major rebellion of Hungarian and Romanian peasants in Transylvania in 1437. It was suppressed by the joint forces of the Hungarian noblemen, Székelys and Transylvanian Saxons who concluded an
agreement against the rebels.
Age of the two Hunyadis (1437–1490) at
Vajdahunyad (present-day Hunedoara,
Romania) Sigismund, who had no sons, died in late 1437. The
Estates elected his son-in-law,
Albert V of Austria, king. Albert promised not to make any decisions without consulting the prelates and the lords. Although Albert's widow,
Elizabeth of Luxembourg, gave birth to a posthumous son,
Ladislaus V, most noblemen preferred a monarch capable to fight. They offered the crown to
Władysław III of Poland. John Hunyadi, a talented military leader who supported Władysław, rose to prominence during these fights. During his "
long campaign" of 1443-1444, the Hungarian forces penetrated as far as
Sofia within the Ottoman Empire. The Holy See organized a
new crusade, but the Ottomans annihilated the Christian forces at the
Battle of Varna in 1444, during which Władysław was killed. ,
Regent-Governor of the Kingdom of Hungary at around 50 years old (contemporary sculpture from
Buda Castle) Following Władysław's death, the Diet of 1445 acknowledged the infant Ladislaus V as rightful monarch. He lived in the court of his relative,
Frederick III. Therefore, the Estates appointed seven "captains", one of them being Hunyadi, to govern the kingdom. The Diet of 1446 elected Hunyadi sole
regent, For instance, Frederick III held several towns along the western borders, and a Czech mercenary,
John Jiskra of Brandýs, administered many fortresses in the northern regions. Even so, Hunyadi was planning to fight against the Ottomans in their own territories. However, his new campaign ended with the
Christian forces' defeat at Kosovo in 1448. Hunyadi also resigned from the regency, but he continued to administer a significant part of royal revenues and many royal fortresses. According to a contemporary proposal for the reform of royal revenues, more than 50 percent thereof (around 120,000 florins) derived from the royal monopoly on salt and a
direct tax payable by the peasantry. The
Fall of Constantinople in 1453 demonstrated the beginning of a new phase of Ottoman expansion under Sultan
Mehmed II. In two years, he occupied Serbia and decided to take Belgrade (), the key fort at Hungary's southern frontier. The defence was organized by John Hunyadi, who was assisted by the
Franciscan preacher,
John of Capistrano. They mobilized 25-30,000 commoners, cut the Ottomans' supply lines and forced them to withdraw on July 22, 1456. Hunyadi died in an epidemic in two weeks. Ladislaus Hunyadi pretended to accept the command, but his retinue murdered Ulrich in Belgrade. He was arrested in March 1457, along with his younger brother Matthias, and subsequently executed. The young monarch in short time removed the powerful Ladislaus Garay from the office of
palatine and his uncle,
Michael Szilágyi, of the regency. Led by Garay, his opponents offered the crown to Frederick III, but Matthias defeated them and concluded a peace treaty with the emperor in 1464. As an immediate consequence, a great number of Serbian refugees settled in the kingdom. King Matthias introduced far-reaching fiscal and military reforms. First of all, peasants were in each year obliged to pay a
lump-sum "extraordinary tax", often without the consent of the Diet. Traditional taxes were renamed in order to abolish earlier exemptions (for instance, the "thirtieth" was collected under the name "duty of the Crown" from 1467). Contemporary estimations suggest that his total yearly income was about 650,000 golden florins. More than 60 percent of his revenues (about 400,000 florins) derived from the "extraordinary tax", but salt monopoly and coinage still yielded significant income (60-80,000 florins). Consisting of mainly Czech, German and Hungarian mercenaries, his "
Black Army" was one of the first professional military forces in Europe. Matthias strengthened the network of fortresses along the southern frontier, but he did not pursue his father's offensive anti-Ottoman policy. Instead, he
launched attacks on Bohemia, Poland, and
Austria, arguing that he was trying to forge an alliance strong enough to expel the Ottomans from Europe. Although his war against the "heretic" king of Bohemia,
George of Poděbrady, was supported by the Holy See, this reorientation of the kingdom's foreign policy was unpopular. Led by
John Vitéz, archbishop of Esztergom, many of Matthias's former supporters rebelled against him in 1471. In the next decade, Matthias
waged a war against Emperor Frederick III which enabled him to occupy
Styria and
Lower Austria (including Vienna). Matthias rarely convoked a Diet and governed by
royal decrees after 1471. He preferred to employ lesser nobles and even commoners instead of aristocrats in state administration. King "Matthias the Just" travelling in disguise throughout his realm in order to suppress corruption became a hero of popular folk tales for some years after his death. His library, the
Bibliotheca Corviniana with its 2,000 manuscripts, was the second greatest in size among contemporary book-collections. Matthias was the first monarch north of the Alps to introduce Italian Renaissance style in his realms. Vladislaus II donated most of the royal estates,
régales and royalties to the nobility. By this method, the king tried to stabilize his new reign and preserve his popularity amongst the magnates. After the naïve fiscal and land policy of the royal court, the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, largely due to the enlargement of feudal lands at his expense. The noble estate of the parliament succeeded in reducing the tax burden by 70-80 percent, at the expense of the country's ability to defend itself. Vladislaus II also abolished the taxes that had supported Matthias' mercenary army. As a result, the king's army dispersed just as the Turks were threatening Hungary. The magnates also dismantled Mathias' administration and antagonized the lesser nobles. In 1492 the
Diet limited the serfs' freedom of movement and expanded their obligations while a large portion of peasants became prosperous because of cattle-export to the West. Rural discontent boiled over in 1514 when well-armed peasants preparing for a crusade against Turks rose up under
György Dózsa, a borderguard captain, and attacked estates across Hungary. United by a common threat, the magnates and lesser nobles eventually crushed the rebels. Dózsa and other rebel leaders were brutally executed. Shocked by the peasant revolt, the Diet of 1514 passed laws that condemned the serfs to eternal bondage and increased their work obligations. Corporal punishment became widespread, and one noble even branded his serfs like livestock. The legal scholar
István Werbőczy included the new laws in his
Tripartitum of 1514, which made up the espirit of Hungary's legal corpus until the revolution of 1848. However, the
Tripartitum was never used as a code. The
Tripartitum gave Hungary's king and nobles, or magnates, equal shares of power: the nobles recognized the king as superior, but in turn the nobles had the power to elect the king. The
Tripartitum also freed the nobles from taxation, obligated them to serve in the military only in a defensive war, and made them immune from
arbitrary arrest. When Vladislaus II died in 1516, his ten-year-old son
Louis II became king, but a royal council appointed by the Diet ruled the country. Hungary was in a state of near anarchy under the magnates' rule. The king's finances were a shambles; he borrowed to meet his household expenses despite the fact that they totaled about one-third of the national income. The country's defenses sagged as border guards went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. In 1521 Sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent recognized Hungary's weakness and seized Belgrade in preparation for an attack on Hungary.
Battle of Mohács (1526) Following the fall of Belgrade, Louis II and his wife,
Mary of Habsburg, tried to manage an anti-magnate putsch, but were not successful. In August 1526, the Ottomans under Suleiman appeared in southern Hungary, and he marched nearly 100,000 Turkish-Islamic troops into Hungary's heartland. The Hungarian army, numbering around 26,000, met the Turks at
Mohács. Though the Hungarian troops were well-equipped and well-trained, they lacked a good military leader, while reinforcements from Croatia and Transylvania did not arrive in time. They were utterly defeated, with up to 20,000 killed on the field, while Louis himself died when he fell from his horse into a bog.
Partitioning (1526–1541) After Louis's death, the rival factions of Hungarian nobles simultaneously elected two kings,
John Zápolya and
Ferdinand of Habsburg. Each claimed sovereignty over the entire country but lacked sufficient forces to eliminate his rival. Zápolya, a Hungarian who was military governor of Transylvania, was recognized by Sultan Suleiman and was supported mostly by lesser nobles opposed to new foreign kings. Zápolya's
realm also became an Ottoman vassal in 1529 when he swore fealty to Suleiman. Ferdinand drew support from magnates in western Hungary who hoped he could convince his brother, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, to expel the Turks. In 1538
George Martinuzzi, Zápolya's adviser, arranged an agreement between the rivals, known as the
Treaty of Nagyvárad, that would have made Ferdinand sole monarch upon the death of the then-childless Zápolya. The agreement failed when, just before his death in 1540, Zápolya married and fathered a son,
John Sigismund Zápolya. Violence erupted, and the Turks seized the opportunity, conquering the city of Buda and then partitioning the country in 1541. ==See also==