Austria In the late Middle Ages, when the court of the emperor no longer moved around constantly, the household of the empress, as well as the equivalent household of the German princely consorts, started to develop a less-fluid and a more strict organisation with set court offices. The court model of the Duchy of Burgundy, as well as the Spanish court model, came to influence the organisation of the Austrian imperial court during the 16th century, when the
Burgundian Netherlands, Spain and Austria were united through the
House of Habsburg. In the early and mid-16th century, the female courtiers kept by female Habsburgs in the Netherlands and Austria was composed of one (Court Mistress) or who served as the principal lady-in-waiting; one or , who was second in rank and deputy of the , as well as being in charge of the (Maids of Honour), also known as , or depending on language (
Dutch,
French and
Austrian German respectively), and finally the
Kamenisters (Chamber Maids). However, during the tenure of
Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress in the mid-16th century, the court of the empress was organised in accordance with the Spanish court model, and after she left Austria, there was no further household of an empress until the 1610s. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created. In 1619, a set organisation was finally established for the Austrian imperial court, which came to be the characteristic organisation of the Austrian-Habsburg court roughly kept from this point onward.
Belgium The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a royal court was founded, and ladies-in-waiting were appointed for
Louise of Orléans when she became the first queen of Belgium in 1832. The female officeholders of the queen's household were created after the French model and composed of one , followed by several ladies-in-waiting with the title , in turn ranking above the and the . The ladies-in-waiting have historically been chosen by the queen herself from the noblewomen of the Catholic
Noble Houses of Belgium. The chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthdays.
Princess Clementine was given a by her father, a symbolic acknowledgement of adulthood. When the queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation.
Cambodia In Cambodia, the term
ladies-in-waiting refers to high-ranking female servants who served food and drink, fanned and massaged, and sometimes provided sexual services to the king. Conventionally, these women could work their way up from
maids to ladies-in-waiting,
concubines, or even
queen. () is the Cambodian term for the Khmer lady-in-waiting. The six favorite court ladies of
King Sisowath of Cambodia were probably initially drawn from the ranks of classical royal dancers of the lower class. He was noted for having the most classical dancers as concubines. The imperial celestial dancer,
Apsara, was one of these. This practice of drawing from the ranks of royal dancers began in the Golden Age of the Khmer Kingdom.
Canada Several Canadian ladies-in-waiting have also been appointed to the
Royal Household of Canada. Canadian ladies-in-waiting are typically appointed in order to assist the
monarch of Canada when carrying out official duties in Canada and
royal tours in the country. Five Canadian ladies-in-waiting were made Lieutenants of the
Royal Victorian Order.
China '' painting
Han The ladies-in-waiting in China, referred to as
palace women,
palace ladies or
court ladies, were all formally, if not always in practice, a part of
the emperor's harem, regardless of their task, and could be promoted by him to the rank of official concubine, consort, or even empress. The emperors of the
Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) are reported to have had a harem of thousands of 'palace women', although the actual numbers are unconfirmed. Women from official elite families could be chosen to become empress, consort or concubine immediately upon their entrance in the palace, but the emperor could also promote any female court official to that post, as they were officially all members of his harem. However, female officials and assistants in the Ming dynasty were organized into six established government groups, called the Six Bureaus: the Bureau of General Affairs, Bureau of Handicrafts, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apartments, Bureau of Apparel, and Bureau of Foodstuffs. These groups were all overseen by the Office of Staff Surveillance, headed by a female official. Women workers in the imperial palace were distinguished as either permanent or temporary staff. Permanent palace staff included educated and literate female officials serving in the Six Bureaus, and
wet nurses caring for imperial heirs or other palace children. Seasonal or temporary palace women included midwives, female physicians, and indentured contractors (these were usually women serving as maids to consorts, entertainers, sewing tutors, or sedan-chair bearers). These women were recruited into the palace when necessary and then released following the termination of their predetermined period of service. Throughout the Ming dynasty, there was frequent movement between the palace service industry and the low levels of the Imperial Harem. Although emperors frequently selected minor consorts from Imperial serving women, few selected women ever reached the higher ranks of the consort structure or gained significant prominence. As the Ming dynasty progressed, living and working conditions for palace women began to deteriorate. Lower-ranked serving women working in the Imperial palace were often underpaid and unable to buy food, leaving them to support themselves by selling embroidery at the market outside the palace via
eunuchs. Overall, living conditions and punishments for misbehaving eventually grew so bad that there was
an assassination attempt against the
Jiajing Emperor by a group of serving women. Led by palace maid Yang Jinying in 1542, the failed assassination attempt involved several maids sneaking into the emperor's bedchamber as he slept, to strangle him with a curtain cord. The attempt ultimately failed, and all the women involved were put to death, although this type of violent revolt by serving women had never been seen before in the Ming dynasty. These prominent government men began to disparage having educated women in government and state roles in response to the influence Imperial women had held over the nation in the past. This prompted a gradual overtaking of female official roles by palace eunuchs that continued throughout the remainder of the dynasty.
Qing The system of palace women continued mostly unchanged during the
Qing dynasty (1644–1912), when a class of imperial women acting as consorts or concubines, who had not previously held other roles, existed. However, female court attendants were also all available for promotion to concubinage or the position of consort by the emperor. During the Qing dynasty, imperial women were selected from among the teenage daughters of the Manchu official banner families, who were drafted to an inspection before they could marry. After their selection, palace maids were educated as personal attendants to consorts, female officials within court rituals or other tasks, and were also available for the emperor to promote to consort or concubine. The rest of the female courtiers were mainly (Senior Maid of Honour), followed by a group of (Court Lady) and the (
Maid of Honour).
Kingdom of Italy In 1861, the Italian Peninsula was united in to the
Kingdom of Italy. The ladies-in-waiting of the queen of Italy were headed by the , followed by the , and finally the . The was nominally the chief lady-in-waiting, but in practice often limited her service to state occasions; the was the regular lady-in-waiting who personally attended to the queen, while the were honorary courtiers attached to the royal palaces in particular cities, such as Florence, Turin, and so forth, and only served temporary when the queen visited the city in question: among these, only the attached to the royal palace of the capital of Rome served more than temporary.
Japan In Japan, the imperial court offices were normally reserved for members of the court aristocracy and the ladies-in-waiting or 'palace attendants' were commonly educated members of the nobility. During the
Heian period (794–1185) women could hold court offices of substantial responsibility, managing the affairs of the emperor. During the
Sengoku period (1467–1603), the highest rank of a lady-in-waiting was the 'Female Assistant to the Major Counselor', who ran the affairs of the daily life of the Imperial Household. The first class consisted of the , or ladies-in-waiting who held court offices: () () and (). The second class were the female palace attendants: , , and . as well as other types of working women who were not included in the classification, such as
musuri (women from the lowest class who did odd jobs, such as drawing water and distributing firewood),
gaksimi (also known as
bija and
bangja, who were personal servants of a
sanggung),
sonnim (literally translated to 'guest', were maids brought in the palace to work for the royal concubines, most of the time connected to the families of the concubines) and
uinyeo (selected from public female slaves, they worked at the royal infirmary or public clinics, and practiced simple medicine skills). Generally, the ladies-in-waiting were chosen from among the young girls of the
sangmin (commoners) and the private female
slaves of the
sadaebu (governing class). Later, the candidates were also picked from among the government slaves, together with the daughters of noblemen's concubines (who were former
courtesans or slaves). The appointment process was different for
nain associated with the inner quarters for the king and queen, who were recruited by the high ranked court ladies themselves, through recommendations and connections. The
nain for the departments with specific skills such as sewing and embroidery were from the
jungin (middle class), with the lowest class of
gungnyeo coming from the
cheonmin (vulgar commoners). They could be as young as 4 when entering the palace, and after learning court language and etiquette, they could be elevated to a
nain. When they had served the court for more than 15 years, they would eventually be promoted to higher ranks; however, they were eligible for the rank of
sanggung only after a minimum of 35 years of work. Ladies-in-waiting could become concubines if the king favored them. They would be elevated to the highest rank (senior 5th) and would be known as
seungeun sanggung (or 'favored/special court lady'). If they gave birth to a son, they would become members of the royal family, after being promoted to
sug-won (junior 4th) and until the 18th century, they could advance as high as becoming queen (the most notable example being
Jang Ok-jeong, a concubine of
Sukjong of Joseon and mother of
Gyeongjong of Joseon).
The Netherlands The court of the Duchy of Burgundy, which was situated in the Netherlands in the 15th century, was famous for its elaborate ceremonial court life and became a role model for several other courts of Europe. The Burgundian court model came to be the role model for the Austrian imperial court during the 16th century, when the Burgundian Netherlands and Austria were united through the Habsburg dynasty.
Beatrix of the Netherlands had a total of seven . They accompanied the queen and the other female members of the Royal House during visits and receptions at the royal court. The monarch paid for their expenses, but they did not receive any salary. Not all of these ladies were members of the Dutch aristocracy, but each had a "notable" husband. Excellent social behavior and discretion were the most important recommendations for becoming a . In 2012, the were Letje van Karnebeek-van Lede, Lieke Gaarlandt-van Voorst van Beest, Julie Jeekel-Thate, Miente Boellaard-Stheeman, Reina de Blocq van Scheltinga, Elizabeth Baroness van Wassenaer-Mersmans and Bibi Baroness van Zuylen van Nijevelt, den Beer Poortugael.
Queen Maxima reduced the number of to three, hers being: Lieke Gaarlandt-van Voorst van Beest, Pien van Karnebeek-Thijssen and Annemijn Crince le Roy-van Munster van Heuven. After their voluntary retirement, were appointed to the honorary royal household. The honorary royal household still distinguishes between and , but the category is slated for discontinuation. The (Grandmistress) is the highest-ranking lady at the royal court. From 1984 until 2014, the position was held by
Martine van Loon-Labouchere, descendant of the famous banker family, a former diplomat and the widow of
Maurits van Loon of the famous Amsterdam canal estate. The current is Bibi Countess van Zuylen van Nijevelt-den Beer Poortugael (lady-in-waiting between 2011 and 2014).
Nigeria A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, such as the
Lobedu people of Southern Africa, had a similar custom of ladies-in-waiting in historic times. As a further example, within certain
pre-colonial states of the
Bini and
Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the
queen mothers and
high priestesses were considered "
ritually male" due to their social eminence. As a result of this fact, they were often attended to by women who belonged to their
harems in much the same way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. Although these women effectively functioned as ladies-in-waiting, were often members of powerful families of the local nobility in their own right, and were not usually used for sexual purposes, they were nonetheless referred to as their principals' "wives".
Norway During the
Danish–Norwegian union, from 1380 until 1814, the Danish royal court in Copenhagen was counted as the Norwegian royal court, and thus there was no royal court present in Norway during this period. During the union between Norway and Sweden from 1814 to 1905, there were Norwegian courtiers who served during the Swedish royal family's visits to Norway. The female courtiers were appointed according to the Swedish court model, that is to say the class of
Hovfröken (Maid of Honour),
Kammarfröken (Chief Maid of Honour) and
Statsfru (Lady of the Bedchamber), all supervised by the
Overhoffmesterinne (Mistress of the Robes): these posts were first appointed in 1817. When the union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in 1905, a permanent Norwegian royal court was established.
Ottoman Empire In the
Ottoman Empire, the word
lady-in-waiting or court lady has often been used to describe those women of the
Imperial Harem who functioned as servants, secretaries, and companions of the consorts (concubines), daughters, sisters and mothers of the
Ottoman Sultan. These women originally came to the Harem as slaves, captured through the
Crimean slave trade, the
Barbary slave trade and the
White slave trade. When they entered the Harem, they were given the position of
Cariye and were all formally available as concubines to the Sultan, but if they were not chosen to share his bed, they served in a position similar to lady-in-waiting, serving the mother, concubines, sisters, and daughters of the Sultan. A
Hazinedar or
Hazinedar Usta was a kalfa with special assignments rather than just an ordinary attendant, and was ranked under the
Hazinedar Usta. All kalfa belonging to the same household within the court were ranked under their
Daire Kalfasi, who was the supervisor of the kalfa's belonging to a specific royal person.
Portugal The court register of 1896 noted the
Camareira-mór as the senior of all the ladies-in-waiting of the Portuguese court, followed by the
Dama Camarista Mulher do mordomo mór de S. a Rainha, and the
Dama honoraria Mulher do mestre sala. All three positions were at that date occupied by one person. The fourth rank was the
Dona camarista (there were five in 1896), and the lowest rank of ladies-in-waiting was the
Dona honoraria, of which there were 21 in 1896.
Russia In the Court of
Muscovite Russia, the offices of ladies-in-waiting to the
tsarina were normally divided among the
boyarinas (widows or wives of
boyars), often from the family and relatives of the tsarina. The first rank among the offices of the ladies-in-waiting was the tsarina's
treasurer. The second was the group of companions. The third were the royal nurses to the princes and princesses (where the nurses of the male children outranked); among the nurses, the most significant post was that of the
mamok, the head royal governess, who was normally selected from elder widows, often relatives to the tsar or tsarina. All offices were appointed by royal decree. The group of ladies-in-waiting were collectively above the rank of the
svetlichnaya (the tsarina's sewing women), the
postelnitsy (the tsarina's chamber women and washing women) and the officials who handled the affairs of the staff.
Spain The royal court of Castile included a group of ladies-in-waiting for the queen named
Camarera in the late 13th century and early 14th century, but it was not until the 15th century that a set organisation of the ladies-in-waiting is confirmed. This characteristic organisation of the Spanish ladies-in-waiting, roughly established during the reign of
Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474–1504), was kept by
Isabella of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Spain, during the 16th century, and became the standard Spanish court model for ladies-in-waiting. On more formal occasions ladies in waiting wear a badge of office, which usually takes the form of a jewelled or enamelled
monogram of the relevant member of the royal family beneath the appropriate crown or coronet, suspended from a coloured ribbon. Prior to the
Accession of Charles III, a woman attending on a queen (whether
queen regnant,
queen consort or
queen dowager) was also often referred to as a lady-in-waiting (including in official notices), although she would more formally be called either a
woman of the bedchamber or a
lady of the bedchamber (depending on which of these offices she held). The senior lady of a queen's household was the
mistress of the robes, who (as well as being in attendance herself on occasion) was responsible for arranging all the duties of the queen's ladies in waiting. on a
visit to Toronto in 2010 are two ladies-in-waiting: a Woman of the Bedchamber (
Lady Susan Hussey, left, with white hat) and a Lady of the Bedchamber (
Lady Farnham, right, with blue hat). The
ladies of the bedchamber were not in daily attendance, but were called upon for the more important public occasions and events. Towards the end of her reign, the ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth II were:
Mistress of the Robes •
The Duchess of Grafton served as Mistress of the Robes to
Elizabeth II from 1967 until her death on 3 December 2021 (after which the position remained vacant).
Ladies of the Bedchamber •
The Countess of Airlie was appointed in 1973 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign. •
The Lady Farnham served from 1987 until her death in 2021. •
Lady Susan Hussey was also appointed in 1960, and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign. •
The Lady Elton was appointed in 1987 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign. • Dame Philippa de Pass was appointed as an Extra Woman of the Bedchamber in 1987 and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign. • Dame Jennifer Gordon-Lennox was also appointed in 2002, and served throughout the rest of Elizabeth II's reign. • Lady Elizabeth Leeming (née
Bowes-Lyon), a cousin of Elizabeth II. • Mrs. Simon Rhodes, daughter-in-law of The Hon.
Margaret Rhodes (a cousin of Elizabeth II and former
Woman of the Bedchamber to
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). After the death of Elizabeth II and the accession of Charles III, it was announced that the King would be retaining the late Queen's ladies-in-waiting, with their titles changing to "Ladies of the Household". They will help with hosting events at Buckingham Palace. and until the 15th century, the majority of the officeholders of the queen's household were still male. As late as in the mid-15th century,
Elizabeth Woodville had only five ladies-in-waiting, but in the late 15th century and early 16th century, ladies-in-waiting were given a more dominant place at the English court, in parallel with developments in France and the continental courts. The court life of the Duchy of Burgundy served as an example when
Edward IV created the
Black Book of the Household in 1478, and the organisation of the English royal household was essentially set from that point onward.
Elizabeth of York had numerous ladies-in-waiting, which was reported by the Spanish ambassador, Rodrigo de Puebla, as something unusual and astonishing: "the Queen has thirty-two ladies, very magnificent and in splendid style". She reportedly had 36 ladies-in-waiting, 18 of them noblewomen; in 1502, a more complete account summarised them as 16 'gentlewomen', seven maids of honour and three 'chamberers-women', who attended to her in the bedchamber. Aside from the women formally employed as ladies-in-waiting, the Queen's female retinue in reality also consisted of the daughters and the ladies-in-waiting of her ladies-in-waiting, who also resided in the Queen's household. The duties of ladies-in-waiting at the
Tudor court were to act as companions for the queen, both in public and in private. They had to accompany her wherever she went, to entertain her with music, dance or singing and to dress, bathe and help her use the toilet, since a royal person, by the standards of the day, was not supposed to do anything for herself, but was always to be waited upon in all daily tasks as a sign of their status. Ladies-in-waiting were appointed because of their social status as members of the nobility, on the recommendation of court officials, or other prominent citizens, and because they were expected to be supporters of the royal family due to their own family relationships. When the queen was not a foreigner, her own relations were often appointed as they were presumed to be trustworthy and loyal.
Margaret Lee was a lady of the privy chamber to
Anne Boleyn, just as
Elizabeth Seymour was to
Jane Seymour. The organisation of the queen's ladies-in-waiting was set in the period of the Tudor court. The ladies-in-waiting were headed by the mistress of the robes, followed in rank by the
first lady of the bedchamber, who supervised the group of ladies of the bedchamber (typically wives or widows of peers above the rank of earl), in turn followed by the group of women of the bedchamber (usually the daughters of peers) and finally the group of maids of honour, whose service entitled them to the
style of "
The Honourable" for life. The system had formally remained roughly the same since the Tudor period. However, in practice, many offices have since then been left vacant. For example, in recent times, maids of honour have only been appointed for
coronations. ==Notable examples==