Against the Ottomans and French (1532–42) After Fernando had become the third Duke of Alba in 1532,
Charles V sent him to
Vienna to help defend the city against an
Ottoman invasion army. No battle ensued as the Ottomans, having lost momentum due to time lost during the
Siege of Güns, decided not to advance against Vienna and retreated from the field. During this time, he was accompanied by the soldier-poet
Garcilaso de la Vega throughout his travels in Europe. The special access that De La Vega had as a close companion to Alba, coupled with his skilled craft as a writer, allows the historian to delve into the deepest emotions expressed by the Duke of Alba through the poetry of De La Vega, specifically concerning the arduous travels while on a war-footing as well as the emotional longing that Alba expressed for his wife. The Duke's first military command to engage in battle was in the
conquest of Tunis. In early June 1535 at
Cagliari, he embarked with the military force commanded by the
Marquess of Vasto. On 14 July, the fortress of
La Goleta was seized, and a week later the army took the city of Tunis which was defended by
Hayreddin Barbarossa. Thus Spain regained control over the western Mediterranean Sea. In 1542, he led the Spanish troops against the French Army, ending the
siege of Perpignan. The siege was a decisive victory for Alba and one of the worst defeats of
Francis I during the French offensive of 1542.
In Germany (1546–47) In 1547, Charles I, in his capacity as
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor engaged with the
Protestant forces in the
Schmalkaldic War. The Duke of Alba was in charge of
Tercios, the elite Spanish ground troops during the
Battle of Mühlberg on the banks of the
river Elbe. A flanking attack by Alba's Tercios was largely responsible for the imperial army's decisive victory against the
Elector of Saxony.
In Milan and Naples (1555–59) In later years, the focus of conflict between France and Spain had moved to the Italian peninsula. Alba was sent to Italy as
commander in chief of the Spanish-Habsburg army in Italy, and became governor of
Milan in 1555, and
viceroy of Naples in 1556. The newly appointed
Pope Paul IV, an enemy of the
Habsburgs, prompted King
Henry II of France to expel the Spanish from Italy. Papal troops joined the French for this aim. In July 1556 the Pope declared Philip II was removed from the title
King of Naples. Alba did not hesitate and marched on Rome at the head of 12,000 Spanish soldiers. He financed the campaign, in part, by obtaining a loan of 430,000 ducats from
Bona Sforza, dowager
Queen of Poland; the loan became known as
Neapolitan sums and was never repaid. The Pope called for a truce, giving time for a French army commanded by
Francis, Duke of Guise to march on Naples. The Spanish intercepted the French and defeated them in the
Battle of San Quentin. Without French support, the papal troops were overwhelmed by the Spanish and the Duke of Alba entered Rome in September 1557. The pope had to sue for peace. In April 1559, Alba was one of the signatories of the
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis which ended their war with France and released Spanish resources for maximising its economic exploitation of
New Spain. The
Italian peninsula entered a prolonged period of peace, sealed by marriage between the twice widowed Philip II and
Isabel de Valois, daughter of
Henry II of France. During the royal wedding, which was held in Paris, Alba acted as proxy for Philip.
Governor of the Netherlands (1567–73) . From
Nederlantsche Oorloghen by
Pieter Bor in commemoration of his triumphs in 1571 with the
Latin legend «FERDIN[andus] • TOLET[anus] • ALBÆ • DUX • BELG • PRÆF[ectus]», which means, in
English, "Fernando de Toledo Duke of Alba Governor of the
Netherlands" (1568) On 26 December 1566 Alba received the
Golden Rose, the
blessed sword and hat granted by
Pope Pius V, through the
papal brief Solent Romani Pontifices, in recognition of his singular efforts in favor of
Catholicism and for being considered one of his champions. From August to October 1566, the "
Iconoclasm" () took place in the Netherlands, during which
Calvinist mobs attacked and destroyed numerous Catholic monasteries and churches, ransacking tombs and destroying statues. To tackle the civil and religious rebels, King Philip II sent Alba to
Brussels on 22 August 1567, at the head of a powerful army. Upon arrival, he replaced
Margaret of Parma, the sister of the
Spanish king, as head of the civil jurisdiction. He decided that the local nobility was in open rebellion against the king and supported the new Protestant teachings, heresy in the Catholic view. A few days later, on 5 September 1567, Alba established the "
Council of Troubles", popularly known in the Netherlands as the "Court of Blood," to prosecute those responsible for the riots of 1566, especially those deemed heretics. Alba also targeted the local Catholic nobles who favoured dialogue and who opposed outside intervention. Two of the three heads of Flemish nobility, the
Count of Egmont, a Catholic General for Philip II, who had led the cavalry that defeated the French at the
Battle of San Quentin, and
Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn, were arrested and the court sentenced both counts to death. The Mayor of Antwerp,
Anthony van Stralen, Lord of Merksem and
Jan van Casembroot were other famous victims of the bloody repression, along with a large group of other apostates. Those condemned were executed on 5 June 1568 in the Town Hall Square in Brussels. Alba had little confidence in conventional Flemish justice, which he perceived as sympathetic to the defendants, and witnessed the executions in person. He would later become equally mistrustful of the local helpers of the Council of Troubles as possibly having their own agendas. The maintenance of the troops in Flanders entailed substantial economic costs. The Duke imposed new taxes on the population and reformed its laws. Some cities, including
Utrecht, refused to pay and declared a rebellion, which quickly spread throughout the Netherlands.
William the Silent, the prince of Orange, enlisted the help of the French
Huguenots and started to actively support the rebellion. William and the Huguenots took many Dutch cities. The Spanish troops advanced under banners with the Latin legend
Pro lege, rege, et grege, which in English means
For the law, the king, and the people [literally,
the flock]. In 1572 the Spanish army carried out the
Spanish Fury at Mechelen, retaking and sacking the city after the rebel garrison had left. From there, they retook
Zutphen and
Naarden. The Spanish
Siege of Haarlem, characterized by brutality and savagery on both sides, culminated in the surrender of the city and the execution of all the garrison, estimated at 2,000 men. The subsequent
Siege of Alkmaar was unsuccessful however: it was the first defeat in a full scale engagement for the Spanish troops during the Dutch revolt. The prolonged military campaigns and the harsh repression of the rebel citizenry earned the 3rd Duke of Alba the nickname "The Iron Duke" in the Netherlands, and he became an important element of the
anti-Spanish Black Legend. His reputation was used for propaganda purposes by rebel statesman
Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde to further strengthen anti-Spanish sentiments in the Netherlands. In spite of continuous military action, the political situation in the Netherlands had not turned in favour of the Spanish crown. After five years of repression, more than 5,000 executions and numerous complaints to the Spanish court, Philip II decided to change policy and relieve the Duke. The monarch sent
Luis de Requesens to replace him. De Requesens tried to appease the situation by giving concessions to the rebels. Alba returned to Spain in 1573. Nevertheless, the Duke still had influence in the Royal Council. Alba belonged to the conservative Spanish faction called
Albistas or imperialists. This faction included the
Inquisitor General
Fernando de Valdés y Salas, the House of Pimentel, the Duke de Alburquerque and other members of the House of Álvarez de Toledo. The Albistas advised the king to take a firm stand in the Netherlands. The Albistas' hardline position was hotly contested by the liberal
Ebolistas or humanists, led by
Ruy Gómez de Silva, prince of Éboli and his secretary Francisco de Eraso. After the death of the prince of Éboli in 1573, the royal secretary
Antonio Pérez went on to lead the liberal faction and began his association with
Ana de Mendoza de la Cerda, Princess of Éboli. Against the Albistas' urging, King Philip II himself publicly acknowledged that "it is not possible to carry Flanders forward by way of war." Political concessions by Luis de Requesens failed to end the rebellion in the Netherlands and hostilities soon resumed. These failures of the Ebolistas to end the Dutch revolt raised the distrust of the king, and Philip II again granted the Duke of Alba an important position in court.
Portuguese succession (1580–82) After the death of King
Sebastian of Portugal, who had no heirs, in the
Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578, the crown fell to his great uncle
Cardinal Henry I of Portugal. The death of the latter, without any appointed heirs, led to the
Portuguese succession crisis of 1580. One of the claimants to the throne,
António, Prior of Crato, a bastard son of
Infante Louis, Duke of Beja and only grandson through the male line of king
Manuel I of Portugal, was proclaimed King in June 1580. Philip II, through his mother
Isabella of Portugal also a grandson of Manuel I, did not recognize Antonio as king of Portugal. The king appointed Fernando, Duke of Alba, as captain general of his army. The duke was 73 years old and ill at the time. Fernando mustered his forces, estimated at 20,000 men, in Badajoz, and in June 1580 crossed the Spanish-Portuguese border and moved to
Lisbon. In late August he defeated a Portuguese army at the
Battle of Alcântara and entered Lisbon. This cleared the way for Philip II who became
Philip I of Portugal, and created a
dynastic union spanning all of Iberia under the Spanish crown. King Philip II rewarded Fernando with the titles of 1st
Viceroy of Portugal and
Constable of Portugal on 18 July 1580. With these titles Fernando represented the Spanish monarch in Portugal and was second in hierarchy only after the king in Portugal. Fernando held both titles until his death in 1582. == Marriage and children ==