Pre-dynastic history Origins The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the
Book of Wei, a history of the
Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. The
Book of Jin (648) mentions the Khitans in the section covering the reign of
Murong Sheng (398–401). The
Samguk Sagi (1145) mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378. It is generally believed that the Khitans emerged from the
Yuwen branch of the
Xianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which was called the
Kumo Xi. In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were
Tungusic in origin (modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim). in Shenyang After splitting from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southern
Hexigten Banner and western
Ongniud Banner). According to the
New Book of Tang, the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south of
Xar Moron River and east of the Laoha. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by the
Rouran Khaganate and
Goguryeo, which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modern
Daling River). By the time the
Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's
Jilin and
Liaoning Provinces. The Hedahe were the leading tribe. The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs. After the Dahe united the Khitans, leadership was selected from their lineage by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability. The other clans had the right to vote but not to be elected. The Dahe Confederation submitted to the Tang in both 628 and 648, under the leadership of Mohui and
Kuge respectively. Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects. The Tang emperor bestowed the imperial surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes". Some Khitan tribes were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to the Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandson
Sun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng. Towards the turn of the century, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general of
Yingzhou, Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law, the governor of Songmo,
Li Jinzhong, felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696, a famine occurred in Khitan territory and caused them to rebel. Li Jinzhong captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang were defeated at Xiashi Gorge (
Lulong County) and continued to suffer defeats until Li Jinzhong died of disease.
Qapaghan Qaghan of the
Second Turkic Khaganate attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou and
Youzhou. A 170,000 strong Tang army was defeated by the Khitans. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against the Khitans but also failed to stop their advance. However the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the
Kumo Xi defected from their ranks. After Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant, it took another fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans. In 720, the military chief (
Yaguan) Ketuyu attacked the reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu, who fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler and sent tribute to the Tang court, but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler and defected to the Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to the Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu.
Yaonian Confederation c. 1012-1021 The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of the Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from the Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation. The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Other tribes are also mentioned: the Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju. The Tang governor
An Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as a teenager but An Lushan castrated him. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who was beaten by An before. The
An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty.
Rise to power Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs while simultaneously paying tribute to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. There were 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang from 756 to 841. From 840 until the rise of Abaoji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty. Towards the end of that period, the Khitans began a series of major conquests. Under the reign of Xianzhi Khagan (860?–882?), the Khitans subjugated the Kumo Xi and Shiwei. Two campaigns were launched against the Kumo Xi. Xianzhi captured 700 Xi households who were later settled as the Dieladieda tribe under Abaoji's reign. Saladi, Abaoji's father, captured 7,000 Xi households and moved them to Qinghe in the region of Raole (west of modern
Ningcheng County). During the Xiantong reign period (860–874), Xianzhi sent envoys to the Tang court twice. According to the
Zizhi Tongjian, during the Xiantong period, the Khitans' territory expanded drastically and by the time of Abaoji, all the Kumo Xi, Shiwei, Tatars, western Türks, and Jurchens had been defeated.
Abaoji (907–926) in the year 900 helmets and mask
Abaoji, posthumously Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872 to the Yila chieftain, Saladi. According to the
Later Tang envoy Yao Kun, who met the Khitan ruler in person, Abaoji was extremely tall (9
chi; over two meters). By the time of Abaoji, the Yila had become the largest and strongest of the Khitan tribes, even though the Yaonian khans still held overall power. The Yila tribe descended from the Yishihuo, who settled closer to Han civilization than other Khitans. In the 730s, the Yila became a tribe independent of the Yaonian. Under the influence of Han culture, Yundeshi (820s–860s?), Abaoji's grandfather, became the first Khitan to practice and teach settled agriculture. Shulan, Abaoji's uncle, was the first Khitan to practice masonry and build walled cities. To their south, the Han people of
Youzhou Jiedushi fled the rule of
Liu Rengong, most of them ending up in Yila territory. Han farmers were resettled by Abaoji and Han craftsman taught the Khitans how to spin and weave. The adoption of agrarian culture, Han refugees, and more advanced labor organization made the Yila tribe far richer than other Khitans. Abaoji placed Han intellectuals such as Kang Moji, Han Yanhui, and Han Zhigu into his administration. Kang Moji was responsible for legal matters between Khitans and Han. Later he supervised the building of the capital city. Han Yanhui was made an official in charge of military affairs and oversaw the subdued Han population, settling them and making sure they did not flee. Han Zhigu participated in strategy and decision making. He later took charge of the department handling Han affairs and managed protocols of foreign affairs. He also combined Han institutions and Khitan customs to make them easier to understand for Khitans. Abaoji held the title of Dama Yueshali, the commander of the khagan's personal guard, in the late 9th century. In 901, Abaoji was elected Yilijin (chieftain) of the Yila by the triennial council. None of the Khitans except the Yaonian used surnames at the time, but later in the 930s, Abaoji's clan adopted Yelü as their surname. At the same time their consort clan also began using the surname Xiao. After his accession as leader of the Yila, Abaoji raided the
Tang dynasty, attacked the
Jurchens, and established superiority over the
Shiwei and
Kumo Xi. In 903, Abaoji was named Yüyue, the supreme commander of all Khitans, second only to the Yaonian Khagan. Two years later, he led 70,000 cavalry to
Datong to form a blood oath with the
Shatuo warlord
Li Keyong. Abaoji and Li Keyong had a conversation about the Khitan way of succession. Abaoji was concerned that he would be replaced in three years and Keyong noted that there was also a practice of replacement for his post. He told Abaoji that he could just refuse to be replaced. In 907, Abaoji demanded that he be made Khagan, and ascended as supreme leader of the Khitans with support from seven other tribes. Abaoji then slaughtered the other Khitan chieftains, alarming the Khitan elite, many of whom saw his action as a move towards Han-style emperorship. Abaoji's rule went unchallenged until 910, when he disregarded Khitan calls for another member of the family to assume the position of Khagan. In 912 and 913, members of Abaoji's family attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with the other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed. In 916, Abaoji assumed the title of
Celestial Emperor, proclaimed a
Chinese era name, and built a
Confucian temple. He named his eldest son,
Yelü Bei, from his primary consort,
Shulü Ping, as heir apparent and demanded the entire nobility to swear fealty to him. Two years later, the Liao court was moved to the "
Supreme Capital" (Shangjing), a newly built walled city with a grand park and imperial tents where the Chinese palaces would normally be located. Abaoji fostered the construction of 30 more walled cities for his captured ethnic Han subjects to inhabit. The Supreme Capital was joined by the "Eastern Capital" (
Dongjing). Administration of the empire was divided between a Northern Administration overseeing steppe and tribal affairs and a Southern Establishment overseeing the settled and Han population. The two institutions were headed by chancellors, the northern one appointed by the Xiao consort clan, and the southern one appointed by the ruling Yelü clan. In 917, Abaoji received
naphtha as a gift from the state of
Wuyue. In 920, Abaoji ordered the development of a Khitan writing system known as the
Khitan large script. While superficially similar to Chinese writing, it arbitrarily adds and reduces strokes to Chinese characters to compose words, making it completely unrecognizable to Han readers. In 925, the arrival of a
Uyghur delegation led Abaoji to order his younger brother,
Yelü Diela, to study the
Old Uyghur language. Uyghur influence led to the development of a
Khitan small script with more phonetic elements. The Khitan script was used for memorial inscriptions on wood and stone and record keeping in the Northern Administration. Almost no extensive documents written in Khitan script have survived, suggesting that few were ever produced. In the Southern Establishment, Chinese was the administrative language, which many Khitans learned, including Abaoji's sons. In a conversation with Yao Kun, an envoy from Later Tang, Abaoji said he spoke Chinese but did not speak it in the presence of other Khitans, because he feared that they would emulate the Han and grow soft. During his reign, Abaoji attacked numerous neighboring peoples and expanded Liao territory exponentially. Against the steppe nomads, he led campaigns in 908 against the
Shiwei, in 910 the Kumo Xi, in 912 the
Zubu, in 915 the
Khongirad, and again in 919 to subdue the Khongirad. From 922 to 923, he raided the
Jin and its successor,
Later Tang. A year later he attacked the
Tatars. His campaigns continued right up until his death in 926 with the conquest of
Balhae and the creation of the puppet Kingdom of
Dongdan. Most of Balhae's population was relocated to what is now
Liaoning. The destruction of Balhae resulted in three independent groups beyond Khitan control: the northwestern Balhae people in modern
Heilongjiang, the Balhae people west of the
Yalu River, and the state of
Jeongan in the upper valley of the
Mudan River that emerged after the dissolution of Dongdan. Abaoji died of typhoid fever at the age of 54 on 6 September 926.
Taizong (926–947) Yelü Deguang, posthumously
Emperor Taizong of Liao, was the second son of
Shulü Ping (Empress Yingtian) and not the first in line for the Khitan throne. His elder brother, the 26-year old heir apparent
Yelü Bei, was disliked by the conservative Khitan elites for his intellectual pursuits. As a
polymath, Yelü Bei was skilled in painting, writing in both Khitan and Chinese languages, and possessed a large personal library. He also had a taste for Chinese culture, music, medicine, and prognostication. Chinese-style primogeniture was also not a custom among the Khitans, who had elected their leader since the time of the Dahe Confederation, which was why Abaoji had them swear allegiance to Yelü Bei when he announced him as heir apparent. Bei's mother, Shulü Ping, who was exceptionally powerful in her own right, commanding thousands of horsemen and leading troops on campaign, took control of all military and civil affairs as regent, after having cut off her right hand to be buried with her husband. Shulü Ping herself disproved of her first son as heir due to his Chinese leanings and used all her influence to have Bei set aside for his younger brother, Deguang, who had participated in the 922–923 and 924–925 campaigns. Toward the end of 927, Bei approached his mother and formally withdrew his claim. Deguang succeeded the throne. Bei was still ruler of the
Dongdan Kingdom in former
Balhae, given to him by his father after participating in its conquest. Taizong, who still regarded him as a threat, ordered in 929 that the capital of Dongdan and all its inhabitants be moved to the Eastern Capital (
Dongjing). Dongdan lost its semi-autonomous status. In 930, Bei fled by sea to the
Later Tang court and was received by
Li Siyuan as an honored guest. In 937, he was killed by
Shi Jingtang, who overthrew Later Tang and ruled
Later Jin (Five Dynasties) as a puppet of the Khitans. In 929, the
Khongirad rebelled. In the same year, Taizong sent his younger brother,
Yelü Lihu, to attack the Later Tang at
Datong. In 933, Taizong led a campaign against some
Tangut tribes. The most important expansion of Khitan territory during this period, however, came from political instability in the south. In 933, the Later Tang emperor died. His son,
Li Conghou, lasted only five months before his adoptive brother,
Li Congke, killed him. Li Congke ordered a powerful governor, Shi Jingtang, to be transferred for closer supervision by the court, leading to his rebellion. Hard pressed by Li Congke, Shi Jingtang sought aid from the Khitans. Taizong led a 50,000 strong cavalry force to his aid and defeated the Later Tang army near
Taiyuan. On 28 November 936, Shi Jingtang was invested as emperor of Later Jin by the Khitans. In 938, the puppet emperor of Later Jin transferred the
Sixteen Prefectures over to the Khitans, granting them access to the strategic fortifications of northern China and the
Central Plains. A new "Southern Capital" (
Nanjing) was constructed at modern
Beijing. His victory did not last. Having brought inadequate supplies, the Khitans wantonly looted the city and plundered the countryside provisions, and imposed harsh levies on the local populace, causing them to become resentful and attack them. Rather than stay and govern the conquered city, the Khitans decided to ship everything of value, from Jin officials and palace women to maps and music instruments, back to the Supreme Capital. Taizong also faced another threat from Taiyuan, where
Liu Zhiyuan announced a new
Later Han (Five Dynasties) dynasty. The occupation of Kaifeng lasted three months before Taizong withdrew. Shortly before reaching Liao territory, Taizong suddenly fell ill and died near modern-day
Shijiazhuang at the age of 45 on 18 May 947. , Taipei. Attributed to Li Zanhua (李贊華 909–946), but possibly a later artist.
Shizong (947–951) hunting with birds of prey, 9–10th centuries Yelü Ruan, posthumously
Emperor Shizong of Liao, was the son of
Yelü Bei.
Emperor Taizong of Liao had apparently come to an agreement with his brother Bei and chose Bei's son as his successor. Taizong had raised Ruan after Bei's departure in 930 and the relationship between them was as close as father and son. Ruan participated in the invasion of
Later Jin, earning himself the reputation of a capable warrior and commander. Upon Taizong's death, Ruan declared himself emperor before "his father's coffin". However Ruan's grandmother,
Shulü Ping (Empress Yingtian), opposed the succession and favored her third son,
Yelü Lihu, Taizong's younger brother. Shulü Ping proclaimed her son Lihu as emperor and sent and sent Lihu with an army to attack Ruan while he was on his way back to the Supreme Capital but was defeated. His mother then led her own army to confront Ruan. The two armies faced each other on the
Xar Moron River, south of the Supreme Capital, for several days. The deadlock was resolved by a royal cousin named Yelü Wuzhi and ultimately Lihu, who the Khitan nobility viewed as cruel and spoiled, was unable to gain enough support to further challenge Shizong. After a peace was brokered, Ruan formally assumed the role of emperor and the title of emperor. Shizong exiled both Empress Shulü Ping and Yelü Lihu from the capital, ending their political ambitions. Shizong hoped this would secure his position but he quickly became disillusioned as the internal situation of the Liao remained unstable. In 948, the second son of Taizong, Yelü Tiande, conspired to murder the emperor. The conspiracy failed and the conspirators' lives were spared. Among them, Xiao Han, a nephew of Shulü Ping, conspired against Shizong again in the following year. Despite being spared again, Xiao Han returned to his old ways a third time, resulting in his execution. In 947, a planned invasion of
Goryeo was aborted when the Khitans realized that enemy defenses were more formidable than they had thought. From 949 to 950, Shizong invaded
Later Han. In late 951, Shizong decided to invade
Later Zhou. Before the army set off, Shizong and his entourage got drunk after making sacrifices to his father. Chage, the son of
Abaoji's younger brother, Anduan, took advantage of the situation to kill Shizong. Chage was executed. Shizong died at the age of 33 and had not produced a son of age to inherit the throne. Shizong's rule was characterized by a series of rebellions from within his extended family. Although ruling for only four years, Shizong oversaw the formalization of the dual government system, which brought the structure of the Southern Establishment closer to the model used by the Tang dynasty.
Muzong (951–969) Wenshu Hall built in 966 is the oldest extant Liao building Yelü Jing, posthumously
Emperor Muzong of Liao, succeeded his cousin,
Emperor Shizong of Liao. Muzong was a heavy drinker and spent most of his time either hunting or sleeping. The Chinese called him the "Sleeping Prince". The first half of his reign was marred by continued instability within his family. A younger brother of Shizong, Louguo, hatched a plot with one of his uncles to defect to
Later Zhou. He was executed when the plot was discovered. In 953, a son of
Yelü Lihu named Wan also conspired against the emperor. Wan was spared but his co-conspirators were executed. In 959, Dilie, one of Louguo's co-conspirators, plotted rebellion. The next year, Wan's older brother, Xiyin, was arrested for plotting rebellion. Lihu was implicated and died in prison. During Muzong's reign, the Liao assisted
Northern Han in fending off an attack by
Later Zhou in 952. The Zhou attacked Han again in 954, and the Khitans once again came to their aid. The Khitans captured some Han troops by mistake and handed them back. On some occasions, Han envoys would visit the Liao to discuss strategic matters.
Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou believed that the Liao dynasty were poised to invade the Zhou. In 958, the Han reported renewed attacks by the Zhou. In the following year, the Zhou invaded Liao territory, taking some border prefectures. Muzong headed south to confront the Zhou invasion but the Zhou emperor fell sick and had to return to
Kaifeng. He died soon after and the Zhou invaders withdrew. In 960, the Zhou were replaced by the
Song dynasty, which attacked Han in 963, and was repelled with the aid of the Khitans. Border skirmishes occurred between the Liao and Song in 963 and 967. There were minor troubles with the
Shiwei and
Khongirad in 965, but otherwise the northern frontier remained calm for the Liao. In 969, Muzong spent an entire month drinking and began to act violently and irrationally, butchering some of his bodyguards. On 12 March, six of his personal attendants murdered him. He was 37 years old. Muzong was the second and last Liao emperor to succeed Abaoji who was not a direct descendant of Yelü Bei.
Jingzong (969–982) Yelü Xian, posthumously
Emperor Jingzong of Liao, was the son of
Emperor Shizong of Liao. During his reign, the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period came to an end with the rise of the
Song dynasty, which replaced
Later Zhou in 960. The Song had defeated all the competing states except for
Northern Han by 978. Realizing their precarious situation, the Han strengthened their ties to the Liao with monthly courtesy missions starting in 971. In 974, the Song began negotiations with Liao for a possible neutrality treaty. The diplomatic efforts ended in failure and the Song invaded Han in 976 and 977, both times being repelled by Liao intervention. With the conquest of
Wuyue in 978, the Song concentrated all their forces on an invasion of Han. This time they intercepted Liao forces en route to Han and crushed them. In the summer of 979,
Emperor Taizong of Song took
Taiyuan and annexed Northern Han. Taizong then made the disastrous mistake of attempting to invade Liao. His already overextended and tired troops advanced on the Supreme Capital. Initial skirmishes ended in the Song army's favor but they lost a crucial pitched battle on the
Gaoliang River. Taizong was wounded and fled south in a donkey cart. Capitalizing on the Liao victory, Jingzong launched a punitive expedition in 980, and defeated a Song army. In another campaign in 982, the Liao army was defeated and Jingzong was forced to retreat. Aside from conflict with the Song, the Liao also experienced trouble with the
Tanguts in 973. In 975, conflict with remnants of the Balhae people led to an invasion of
Jeongan, which failed. The
Jurchens looted Liao territory in 973 and 976. In 981, captured Chinese soldiers attempted to enthrone a son of Xiyin but the plot failed, and Xiyin was forced to commit suicide. In 977, an examination hall was established outside the Southern Capital. During Jingzong's reign, much of the administrative and military affairs were handled by his empress,
Xiao Yanyan (Empress Chengtian). Jingzong was often ill and unable to oversee matters of state on many occasions. All the officials and generals went to Xiao Yanyan to discuss important matters. Once a decision was made, Jingzong would be informed of the matter so that it could be promulgated in his name. It was said that even in matters of war with the Song, the real decision maker was the empress, who was the true ruler of the Khitans.. On 13 October 982, Jingzong fell sick during a hunting trip and died in his camp. He was 34 years old. Before his death, he designated his eldest son, the 11 year old Longxu, as his successor.
Shengzong (982–1031) , 993 , 1018 Yelü Longxu, posthumously
Emperor Shengzong of Liao, succeeded his father. He was 11 years old at the time of his accession so his mother
Xiao Yanyan (Empress Dowager Chengtian) ruled as regent along with three ministers, two of whom were Chinese, until her death in 1009. Xiao Yanyan was an extremely capable ruler, being both astute in politics and warfare, commanding an ordo to herself capable of fielding 10,000 cavalry. According to the
History of Liao, most of Shengzong's success was due to his mother's instructions. Xiao Yanyan's authority was such that even after Shengzong became an adult, she would berate and beat him in public. She may have had sexual relations with a man named Han Derang, whom she had originally been betrothed to, and produced a son with him. Han became one of her main advisers and rose to the position of commander in chief of the Northern Chancellery, which was usually reserved for the Yelü and Xiao clans. Under Xiao Yanyan's regency and Shengzong's reign, a number of administrative advances were produced. In 983, the
Tang Code was ordered to be translated into Khitan for use by the Northern Administration and in 994, it was decided that any Khitan that transgressed the Ten Abominable Crimes would suffer the same punishment as a Chinese. In 1027, a revised Chinese style legal code was ordered. The first
jinshi examination was held in 988, and they continued until the end of the dynasty. However, only two or three graduates out of ten were employed. The examinations focused on lyric-meter poetry and rhapsodies and only the Chinese took them. In 991, the first veritable records were produced, with those of Jingzong's reign taking up 20 chapters. In 994, the Khitans produced their own calendar. Rules on what matters should be recorded were made in 1011. In 991, the Khitans conducted their first general census and in 997 another census was taken for the tribal population. The
Kumo Xi were completely integrated into Khitan administration by 997. The prior arrangement of vassalage and tribute had lasted since the time of
Emperor Taizong of Liao, but a series of reforms between 994 and 997 discontinued that role. The Kumo Xi king became a salaried official and Chinese style administrative units were set up in Kumo Xi territory. Their former capital became the "Central Capital" (
Zhongjing), which received an inner and outer wall, a
Confucian temple, and public buildings were constructed between 1018 and 1020. Militarily, the Khitans came into conflict with both the
Song dynasty and the Korean kingdom of
Goryeo. In 986,
Emperor Taizong of Song conducted a three-pronged invasion and quickly overwhelmed the Khitan border defenses, but the tide turned as they ventured deep into enemy territory. The empress dowager and her 15 year old son, Shengzong, personally rode with their army to confront the Song invasion. Far from their supply lines, the Song armies were surrounded and defeated, resulting in resounding victories for the Khitans on all three fronts. Despite their victory, the frontier was severely damaged and many people fled their homes, devastating the region for years. In 986,
Li Jiqian of the
Tanguts submitted to the Khitans and three later, was given a member of the Khitan imperial family as bride and installed as "King of Xia". In 985–86, the Khitans attacked
Jeongan and established three military colonies in the lower
Yalu valley in 991, annexing Jeongan. Resistance from Jeongan ended in 999. In 992, the Khitans
invaded Goryeo with a large army and made territorial demands along the Yalu River. Goryeo appealed for assistance from the Song dynasty, with whom they had a military alliance, but no assistance came. The Khitans made steady southward progress before reaching the
Cheongcheon River, at which point they called for negotiations with Goryeo. While the Khitans initially demanded total surrender from Goryeo, the diplomat
Sŏ Hŭi was eventually able to convince the Khitans to accept Goryeo as a
tributary state instead. The Khitans negotiated a peace that forced Goryeo to adopt the Liao calendar and end tributary relations with Song (a violation of King Taejo’s testamentary injunction never to make peace with the Khitan). Sŏ Hŭi's negotiations gained Goryeo the incorporation of the land between the border of Liao and Goryeo up to the Yalu River, which was at the time occupied by
Jurchen tribes. By 994, regular diplomatic exchanges between the Khitans and Goryeo began. After securing the border with Goryeo, the Khitans attacked the Song dynasty in 994 and laid siege to Zitong, but was repelled by defenders using
fire arrows. The Khitans began a series of campaigns against the Song in 999. While generally successful on the battlefield, they failed to secure anything of value. In 1004, Shengzong and his mother led a lightning strike campaign right to the outskirts of the Song capital of Kaifeng by avoiding protracted sieges.
Emperor Zhenzong of Song marched out and met the Khitans at Chanyuan, a small city on the Yellow River. In January 1005, the two sides signed the
Chanyuan Treaty, which stipulated that the Song would give the Liao tribute each year in silk and silver, that the two emperors would address each other as equals, that they would finalize the location of their disputed border, and that the two dynasties would resume cordial relations. The amount of tribute was later increased out of Song fears that the Khitans might form a military alliance with the
Western Xia but no major wars were fought between the Khitans and the Song for over a century following the signing of the treaty. Part of the border demarcated by the treaty was on the barrier-less North China Plain in Hebei. To fortify these borderlands, the Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks. In 1009, the Goryeo general
Kang Cho murdered
Mokjong of Goryeo and put
Hyeonjong of Goryeo on the throne with the intention of serving as the boy's
regent. The Khitans immediately
sent an army of 400,000 men to Goryeo to punish Kang Cho; however, after an initial period of military success and the breakdown of several attempts at peace negotiations, Goryeo and the Khitans entered a decade of continuous warfare. In 1018 the Khitans suffered
a major defeat and their army was annihilated at the
Battle of Gwiju by the Goryeo forces under General
Kang Kam-ch'an. The next year, the Khitans assembled another large army to march on Goryeo but the invasion never happened and a compromise was reached. In 1020 King Hyeonjong resumed sending tribute and in 1022 the Khitans officially recognized the legitimacy of Hyeonjong's reign. In the same year, a Liao envoy was sent to invest Hyeonjong as king. When he died in 1031, his successor
Wang Hŭm was also invested by the Liao court as king. Goryeo broke off relations with the Song and the Liao ceded territory around the Yalu] to Goryeo. The relationship between Liao and Goryeo remained peaceful until the end of the Liao dynasty. However, according to historian Bielenstein, Goryeo maintained diplomatic relations with the Song, Hyeonjong kept his own reign title, and the two states concluded peace as equals in 1022. In 1006, the
Kingdom of Guiyi sent tribute to Shengzong's court, which seems to have encouraged him to attack the
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom. Expeditions against the Ganzhou Uyghurs were conducted in 1008, 1009, and 1010. These achieved limited success resulting in the deportation of some of the captured population. In 1027, the Khitans laid siege to
Ganzhou but failed to take the city, and ended in disaster when they were ambushed by
Zubu tribes. In the 1020s, the Southern Establishment tried to extend its taxation system to the
Balhae people of the defunct
Dongdan Kingdom, who formerly only had to pay a tribute. The Balhae people were ordered to transport grain to the Southern Capital but the journey was dangerous, leading to resentment. In 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty,
Da Yanlin, rebelled. He imprisoned attacked Liao officials and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty. He sought aid from Goryeo and other Balhae people serving in the military, but they refused to join him. Instead only a handful of Jurchens joined his regime. In 1030, Xing Liao and its Jurchen and Goryeo allies were defeated by a Liao pincer attack led by Punu. A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him to the Khitans and his short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo. Shengzong died on 25 June 1031 at the age of 60. At his deathbed, he entrusted his ministers Xiao Xiaomu and Xiao Xiaoxian to enthrone his eldest son, the 15 year old
Yelü Zongzhen.
Xingzong (1031–1055) and gifted to the Liao as tribute The 15 year old Yelü Zongzhen, posthumously
Emperor Xingzong of Liao, was born to
Emperor Shengzong of Liao and one of his lesser consorts,
Xiao Noujin. Despite his parentage, he was raised as the adopted son of Empress Qitian (Xiao Pusage). Noujin fabricated a plot by Qitian to rebel and had her banished and then forced to commit suicide. Noujin declared herself the regent, made her birthday a public holiday, and began holding court and conducting duties normally within the purview of the emperor. In 1034, Noujin plotted to replace Xingzong with his younger brother, Zhongyuan, whom she had brought up herself. Zhongyuan wanted no part of this and informed Xingzong of their mother's plans, resulting in Noujin's banishment to their father's mausoleum. For his part in defeating the coup, Zhongyuan was given the title of "Imperial Younger Brother" and filled a succession of high ranking posts: commander in chief, northern commissioner of military affairs, and viceroy of the Southern Capital. Noujin's relatives remained in power at court. In 1037, Xingzong attempted to reconcile with these elements by treating Noujin with great respect and paying her visits. Xingzong appointed her brother, Xiao Xiaomu, as northern chancellor. In 1039, Noujin returned to the capital and underwent a rebirth ceremony to symbolically re-establish her position. The
Song dynasty began sending separate envoys to pay respects to her. Xingzong's reign saw the codification of law in 1036 with the promulgation of the
Xinding tiaozhi which contained 547 articles and compiled all the laws since
Abaoji's reign. In 1046, all local administrators were ordered to report all legal cases to the Supreme Capital. The laws were further revised in 1051. The universal application of the law was opposed by the pro-Khitan faction of Zhongyuan. In 1043, Chinese living in the Southern Establishments were forbidden from owning bows and arrows. In 1044, at the suggestion of Zhongyuan, Khitan police inspectors were established in each of the capitals to protect Khitan interests. In 1046, Khitans were forbidden to sell slaves to Chinese. On the other hand, restrictions on the
Balhae people relaxed and they were allowed to play
polo, a game regarded as a military exercise. Militarily, the Liao seemed to be in decline during Xingzong's reign. The number of wars conducted in previous decades had put a great burden on the people. In the late 1030s, Xingzong asked his ministers for advice on dealing with growing distress, impoverishment, internal discontent, and banditry due to excessive demands for corvée and military service. The
Confucian scholar, Xiao Hanjianu, advocated for withdrawing overextended garrisons from far off frontiers and the cessation of expansionist policies that incorporated useless territory. Instead, these forces should be concentrated in key areas to the south and east. In 1039, a census was conducted to provide a basis for levying manpower. The army was short on horses so the sacrifice of horses and oxen in ceremonies was banned in 1043. The army and its dependencies were organized into registries in 1046 and these registries were further revised in 1051. There was also concern about the quality of the troops' training, especially the Chinese troops that specialized in artillery and crossbows, skills that augmented the Khitans' cavalry forces. In 1042, the Khitans took advantage of the
Li Yuanhao's invasion of Song to ask for territorial concessions from the Song. Negotiations resulted in the Liao dropping their territorial claims and an increase in annual tribute from the Song to 200,000 tales of silver and 300,000 bolts of silk. When
Li Yuanhao asked the Khitans in 1043 to join him in attacking the Song, Xingzong refused. In 1044, some
Tanguts living in Liao territory rebelled and sought refuge in
Western Xia. The Khitans blamed Yuanhao for instigating the rebellion and immediately sent an invasion force led by Zhongyuan and the northern commissioner for military affairs Xiao Hui. Liao forces enjoyed an initial victory but failed to take the Xia capital and were brutally mauled by Yuanhao's defenders. According to Song spies, there was a succession of carts bearing Liao dead across the desert. In 1048, the Xia emperor died and the throne passed to an infant. The Khitans saw their opportunity for vengeance and invaded in a three pronged attack. The army under Xingzong's personal command encountered little resistance but had to withdraw owing to the lack of water and pasture for its horses. Xiao Hui's army advanced on the
Yellow River with a flotilla of warships but was ambushed and defeated. The third army raided a Tangut palace in the
Helan Mountains, capturing Yuanhao's young widow and some high-ranking officials. The Khitans invaded again the next year and plundered the Xia countryside and accepted the surrender of a Tangut general. The Western Xia agreed to become a tributary and peaceful relations were restored by 1053. In 1044,
Datong formally became the "Western Capital" (Xijing), completing the five capital regions. Xingzong fell sick and died on 28 August 1055. He was 39 years old.
Daozong (1055–1101) , built by
Emperor Daozong of Liao in 1056 at the site of his grandmother's family home. ,
Inner Mongolia. ), the Bodhisattva of Universal Virtue, Liao dynasty Yelü Hongji, posthumously
Emperor Daozong of Liao, succeeded his father,
Emperor Xingzong of Liao, having already gained experience in governing while his father was alive. While both
Xiao Noujin and Zhongyuan still held substantial power, neither disputed the succession. In 1055 all officials, and not just the emperor and members of the Southern Establishment, were required to wear Chinese court dress at major ceremonies. Daozong himself was highly taken with Chinese learning, poetry,
Confucianism, and
Buddhism. He placed greater emphasis on Chinese education and the
imperial examinations for selection of officials. The number of
jinshi passed in each examination increased from 50 to 60 during Xingzong's reign to over 100 under Daozong. In 1059 schools were established all over the empire. In 1060, a second
Guozijian was set up in the Central Capital in addition to the one in the Supreme Capital. In 1070 a special palace examination called the "Examination for the worthy and good" (
Xianliang ge) was established, requiring entrants to submit 100,000 characters worth of writing. In 1072 Daozong personally wrote the questions for the palace examination. Daozong's court was initially dominated by two men, Xiao Ge and Xiao Ala. They had a falling out and Ge denounced Ala for voicing harsh criticisms at the government, resulting in Ala's execution by strangulation, leaving the court under the control of Xiao Ge (who retired the following year), Yelü Renxian, and Yelü Yixin. Renxian and Yixin came into conflict with Zhongyuan, who wanted to remove Renxian from the southern Chancellery. In 1059, the tribal judges were subordinated to the local prefect or magistrate, increasing imperial oversight over local Khitan affairs. In 1063, pro-Khitan elements led by Zhongyuan rebelled and ambushed Daozong while he was out on a hunting trip. Daozong was wounded by crossbows and fell from his horse but he was saved by his servants while his mother, the Empress Dowager Renyi (Xiao Tali), led the guards to ward off the attackers. The rebel leaders were either killed or committed suicide, including Zhongyuan. All the conspirators and their families were executed, resulting in extensive changes in Liao leadership. After the rebellion, Yelü Yixin and his ally Yelü Renxian jointly controlled the Northern Commission for Military Affairs for a while. In 1065, Renxian became commander in chief. For the next 15 years, Yixin exercised unrivaled influence in court and acted opportunistically to advance self-interest, selecting corrupt and worthless men for office, taking bribes, and allowing the military to do anything they wanted. Renxian tried to contain him but eventually left for the post of viceroy of the Southern Capital. Daozong remained aloof from politics, providing no real leadership, and instead opted to pursue his own scholarly interests. In 1064 he ordered a search for books lacking in the imperial collection. In 1074 the government distributed copies of the
Records of the Grand Historian and the
Book of Han. In the same year a bureau for compiling national history was established, which produced in 1085
Veritable Records for the first seven reigns. Daozong gathered prominent scholars around him to expound on various canonical texts and greatly patronized
Buddhist monks. In 1090 a Song envoy commented on how lavishly the emperor patronized the Buddhist clergy and their all-pervasive influence on society. In the latter years of Daozong's reign, he all but abandoned his administrative duties and selected officials by having the candidates roll dice. The historian who compiled the record of his reign was selected in this manner. Khitan resistance to Han influence did not disappear after the rebellion. In 1064 the private publication of books was banned, a measure with disproportionate impact on the urban Han elite. In 1067 Daozong underwent a traditional rebirth ceremony, while still engrossed in his studies, to re-establish his legitimacy as leader of the Khitans. In 1070 the Han were forbidden from hunting, which was considered a military exercise. Daozong recognized that the Khitan and Han customs were different, so he ordered Yixin and Renxian to revise the laws to take this into account. The new laws were so out of step with actual practice that they proved unenforceable. In 1089 the new laws were abandoned and the
Xinding tiaozhi of 1036 was reinstated. It is clear that while Daozong had a predilection towards Han culture, he also recognized that there were limits to how far he could advance pro-Han measures while governing Khitan elites. In 1074 the scholarly official Yelü Shuzhen suggested adopting Han style surnames for all Khitan tribes, which Daozong rejected, declaring that "the old order should not be changed suddenly". , the wife of
Emperor Daozong of Liao, in
Khitan small script After Yelü Renxian died, Yelü Yixin became the predominant figure in Liao court politics. He set in motion plans to eliminate the crown prince's mother,
Xiao Guanyin, by accusing her of having an affair with a palace musician. Evidence of correspondence between the two through love poetry was fabricated, convincing Daozong to execute the empress and the musician's family. The former empress was replaced by one of Yixin's followers, Xiao Tansi. The crown prince, Yelü Jun, attempted to kill Yixin but failed. The next year, Yixin was implicated in a coup to replace Daozong and evidence of a confession by Jun was fabricated by Yixin, resulting in his imprisonment and death at the hands of Yixin's agents. Yixin convinced the viceroy of the Supreme Capital to report the cause of death as a result of illness. The new empress was barren so Daozong decided to make Jun's son,
Yelü Yanxi, his heir. In 1079, Yixin tried to persuade Daozong to leave Yanxi behind on a hunting trip, which came to the attention of several courtiers who alerted the emperor and convinced him to take Yanxi with him. This event caused Daozong to lose trust in Yixin, who was demoted, exiled, and eventually found guilty of trading prohibited goods for which he was sentenced to death. From then on, Yanxi was carefully groomed for the throne. In 1086 Daozong showed him the armour and weapons of
Abaoji and
Emperor Taizong of Liao, describing to him the hardships of the campaigns on which the dynasty was founded. A few weeks later Yanxi underwent a rebirth ceremony. In 1088 he was assigned to his first office. A year later he was married and sons were born in 1089 and 1093. Economically the Liao dynasty suffered greatly from natural disasters during Daozong's reign. Starting from 1065, every year an area was struck by some natural disaster. At first it was mainly the southern agricultural regions that were affected but in the 1080s and 1090s, the tribal areas also experienced immense suffering, resulting in displaced families and vagrants. The government constantly lost revenue due to payments of relief and the granting of tax exemptions. In 1074, the Eastern Capital region was hit by severe flooding, after which orders were given to construct flood control works. This was opposed on grounds that the necessary labor levies involved would cause even greater hardship and unrest. In the winter of 1082–83, unusually heavy snowfall killed up to 60–70 per cent of tribal livestock and horses. Militarily the reign of Daozong saw little conflict with other settled states. In 1074 there was a border demarcation crisis with the Song but it was resolved by peaceful diplomacy in 1076. In 1078
Goryeo's king asked for territory east of the
Yalu River, which was rejected without any trouble or break in relations. The situation on the northwestern borderland was less stable and events toward the end of Daozong's reign would see the subjugation of the
Zubu tribes, some of whom lived in Liao territory but had long resisted Khitan rule. There were outbreaks of warfare with the Zubu previously in 997–1000, 1007, 1012–23, and 1027. In 1063, 1064, and 1070, prohibitions were placed on the trade of metals to the
Western Xia, Zubu tribes, and
Uyghurs. In 1069, there was a renewed Zubu rebellion which was put down by Yelü Renxian. In 1086 the Zubu chieftain attended court and Daozong ordered his grandson, Yelü Yanxi, to be friendly towards him as he was a valuable ally. However, in 1089, Zubu leadership passed to Mogusi. In 1092, the Khitans attacked several tribes in the northwest neighboring the Zubu and the Zubu became involved. In 1093 Mogusi led a series of raids deep into Liao territory and drove off many of the state herds. Other tribes such as the Dilie (Tiriet), who had previously rebelled in 1073, also joined Mogusi. It took until 1100 for the northern commissioner for military affairs, Yelü Wotela, to capture and kill Mogusi. His death did not end warfare with the northwestern tribes and it took another two years to defeat the remaining Zubu forces. The war against the Zubu was the last successful military campaign waged by the Liao dynasty. Daozong died on 12 February 1101 at the age of 68. He was succeeded by his grandson, Yelü Yanxi.
Tianzuo (1101–1125) cavalry in the
Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, commissioned by
Emperor Gaozong of Song. While the subjects are the Xiongnu, the hairstyle depicted is distinctly
Khitan, and likely based on northern steppe peoples contemporary to the Song. The accession of Yelü Yanxi, posthumously
Emperor Tianzuo of Liao, proceeded without incident. Upon becoming emperor, he ordered the desecration the tomb of Yelü Yixin and all those who brought about the deaths of his family. The deceased
Emperor Daozong of Liao was interred together with the empress who had been forced to commit suicide. Tianzuo's father, Jun, was given a posthumous temple name as though he had reigned as emperor. Natural disasters continued to plague the Liao dynasty intermittently. In 1105 Tianzuo went out in disguise to see the suffering of the people, but nothing else on record hints at what he may have prescribed in policy. In the same year, merchant families were barred from taking the
jinshi exam, which suggests continued adherence to the Chinese mode of governance. Between 1103 and 1105, the
Western Xia repeatedly requested the
Khitans to attack the
Song dynasty, but the Liao court refused. The Liao cemented its relations with the
Tanguts with a marriage alliance and sent an envoy requesting the Song to stop its attacks on Western Xia. Diplomatic relations with the neighboring settled states remained cordial and even the
Zubu sent embassies pledging their allegiance in 1106, 1110, and 1112. Despite international peace on several fronts, the Liao dynasty fell to the
Jurchens by 1125. The Jurchens were a
Tungusic people who lived in fragmented tribes stretching northward from the border of
Goryeo. They had been in contact with the Khitans ever since the beginning of the dynasty. Despite their marginal status, they were militarily significant to be acknowledged by the Song as potential allies. They periodically caused trouble for the Khitans. The Liao categorized the Jurchens into three groups: "civilized" Jurchens (
shu nüzhi) descended from tribes captured early on by the Liao and assimilated into Khitan society, "obedient" Jurchens (
shun nüzhi) subordinate to the Liao and had regular contact with the court, and "wild" Jurchens (
sheng nüzhi) who inhabited the lower
Songhua River valley and the eastern mountains of modern
Heilongjiang. During the 11th century, one of the wild Jurchen clans called the
Wanyan established dominance over their neighbors and created a semblance of Jurchen unity, which the Liao recognized by conferring the title of military governor upon their chieftains. As the Wanyan clan consolidated their control over the Jurchens, relations with the Liao became increasingly strained. The Jurchens resented the behavior of Liao officials at
Ningjiang, the main border trading post, who constantly cheated them. The Liao placed on them the obligation of supplying the Liao emperor with
gyrfalcons called , only bred on the coastal regions and required the Jurchens to fight across the territory of their neighbors, the Five Nations, to access. Liao envoys also habitually beat their village elders and sexually abused their women. In late 1112 when Tianzuo was on a fishing expedition to the Huntong River (modern
Songhua River), the Wanyan chieftain
Aguda refused to dance for the emperor as a show of submission. Although Tianzuo initially wanted to execute him for his act of defiance, he was dissuaded from this course by his chancellor, Xiao Fengxian. Aguda was elected ruler of the Jurchens in the following year and began harassing the Liao for the return of a Jurchen chieftain who opposed Wanyan hegemony and had taken refuge in Liao territory. In the late autumn of 1114 Aguda attacked Ningjiang. Tianzuo underestimated the threat posed by Aguda and the Liao armies sent against the Jurchen forces were defeated twice, leading to demoralization among Khitan generals. By the end of the year, the Jurchens and had conquered several cities and some neighboring tribes had also joined them. Negotiations with the newly founded
Jin dynasty failed and another attempt by the Liao to fight back was foiled by a conspiracy to depose Tianzuo. The conspirators were defeated, but within a short period, two rebellions by Balhae descendants also rocked the dynasty. The second rebellion was defeated by Jin forces, resulting in the loss of the entire region east of the
Liao River. By the end of 1117, Jin forces had crossed the Liao River and conquered several cities. A lull in combat occurred because the Jin had stretched their resources too thin and a rebellion at the Jin Eastern Capital required their attention. This brief interlude was no less kind to the Liao, which was plagued by famine, local rebellions, and defections to the Jin. Hostilities renewed in the spring of 1020 when Aguda broke off negotiations. The Jin captured the Supreme Capital in mid-1120 and stopped its advance to escape the summer heat. In the spring of 1121, another conspiracy to depose Tianzuo resulted in the defection of a Liao general who led Jin forces to conquer the Central Capital in the winter of 1121-22. Tianzuo put his uncle in charge of the Southern Capital and fled westward in search of fresh recruits for his army. The
Tanguts contributed troops to the effort due to their fear of a Jurchen invasion, but the combined Khitan-Tangut army was also defeated by the Jin. Both the Southern and Western Capitals fell to the Jin in 1122. , a Buddhist structure built at
Liao Nanjing ("Southern Capital", modern
Beijing) in 1120 during the last years of the Liao dynasty The remaining Khitans fled in two groups to the west. One group led by Xiao Gan fled to Western Xia where they set up a short lived Xi dynasty that lasted five months before Gan died at the hands of his own troops. The other group, led by
Yelü Dashi, joined Tianzuo at the Xia border. In the early summer of 1123, Dashi was captured by the Jin and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, where the entire imperial family except for Tianzuo and one son were captured. Tianzuo sought refuge with
Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia, who while initially receptive, changed his mind after warnings from the Jurchens and declared himself a vassal of Jin in 1124. Tianzuo fled further north into the steppes where he traded his clothes for food from the
Khongirad. In spite of all these setbacks, Tianzuo still held onto the delusion of retaking the Western and Southern Capitals, and attacked nearby prefectures. Dashi, who had rejoined Tianzuo, grew tired of his behavior and left for the west. Tianzuo was captured in early 1125 and taken to the Jin court where he held the title of "king of the seashore" (). According to the
History of Liao, Tianzuo died at the age of 54 in 1128.
Qara Khitai empire in 1160
Yelü Dashi fled northwest and established his headquarter at the military garrison of Kedun (Zhenzhou) on the
Orkhon River. Dashi secured the allegiance of the garrison forces numbering 20,000 and set himself as
gurkhan (universal khan). In 1130, Dashi led his host further west in search of new territory. Within a year, he had established himself as suzerain of
Qocho and gained a foothold in
Transoxiana. After conquering the
Karakhanid city of
Balasaghun (in modern
Kyrgyzstan), he attempted to reclaim former Liao territory, which ended in disaster. Failing in that endeavor, Dashi established a permanent Khitan state in Central Asia known as the
Qara Khitai or the Western Liao dynasty. The new Liao empire expanded to the
Aral Sea, defeating the
Kara-Khanid Khanate and
Seljuk Empire at the
Battle of Qatwan in 1141, and establishing their dominance in the region. With several key trading cities, the Qara Khitai was a multicultural state that showed evidence of religious tolerance. "Qara," which means black, corresponds to the Liao's dynastic color black and its dynastic element water. Yelü Dashi's dynasty was usurped by the
Naimans under
Kuchlug in 1211 and traditional Chinese, Persian, and Arab sources consider the usurpation to be the end of the dynasty. The empire ended with the
Mongol conquest in 1218. == Government ==