Origins and alleged antiquity Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book
In the Country of the Blue Nile included a 13-page appendix with a list of Ethiopian monarchs written by the Prince Regent
Tafari Makonnen, who later became the
Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930. Tafari's list begins in 4530 BC and ends in 1779 AD, with dates following the
Ethiopian Calendar, which is several years behind the
Gregorian calendar. Tafari's cover letter was written in the town of
Addis Ababa on the 11th day of Sane, 1914 (Ethiopian Calendar), which was June 19, 1922 on the
Gregorian Calendar according to Rey. Rey revealed in another book he wrote,
Unconquered Abyssinia, that this list was given to him in 1924 by a court historian who was a "learned old gentleman". This court historian had "caused to be compiled [...] on the instructions of
Ras Tafari" a complete list of "rulers of
Abyssinia from the beginning of time up to date." Rey noted that the list contained many names "of Egyptian origin", which was a "good illustration" of the difficulties in researching the history of Abyssinia. The court historian claimed that the regnal list had already been compiled prior to the "advent of the
Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt" and that the original version had been taken to Egypt and left there, afterwards becoming lost. Prince
Ermias Sahle Selassie, president of the
Crown Council of Ethiopia, acknowledged the regnal list in a speech given in 2011 in which he stated: The goal of the 1922 regnal list was to showcase the immense longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy. The list does this by providing precise dates over 6,300 years and drawing upon various historical traditions from both within Ethiopia and outside of Ethiopia. Multiple versions of the regnal list are known to exist. Tafari's regnal list has 313 numbered monarchs from 4530 BC to 1779 AD (
E.C.) while
Taye Gabra Mariam's version of the list continued up to contemporary times to include influential
Rases of the
Zemene Mesafint and emperors who had reigned since the time of
Tewodros II. The first three dynasties (4530–982 BC) of the list are mostly legendary and take various elements from the Bible, as well as
Ancient Egyptian,
Nubian,
Greek,
Coptic and
Arab sources. Many of the monarchs of the Menelik dynasty (982 BC–AD 920) appear on
Ethiopian regnal lists written before 1922, but these lists often contradict each other and many of the kings themselves are not archeologically verified, though in some cases their existence is confirmed by
Aksumite coinage. Many of the historically verified rulers of the Ag'azyan (1985–982 BC) and Menelik dynasties did not rule over the region of modern Ethiopia but rather over Egypt and/or Nubia. It is only from the mid-
1st century onward that the monarchs are certainly Aksumite or "Abyssinian" in origin. Each monarch on the list has their respective reign dates and number of years listed. Two columns of reign dates were used in the list. One column uses dates according to the
Ethiopian calendar, while the other column lists the "
Year of the World", placing the creation of the
world in
5500 BC. Other Ethiopian texts and documents have also placed a similar date for the creation of the world. The dating of 5500 BC as the creation of the world was influenced by calculations from the Alexandrian and
Byzantine eras which placed the world's creation in 5493 BC and 5509 BC respectively.
Authorship Neither Tafari Makonnen nor Charles Rey explicitly stated who wrote the regnal list originally or who supplied Tafari with a copy of it. Both
Heruy Wolde Selassie and
Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam included versions of the list in their work, however there is clear evidence that a large part of the list's early sections is lifted from the work of an obscure French historian named Louis J. Morié.
Heruy Wolde Selassie and Wazema German historian Manfred Kropp believed the author of the regnal list was Ethiopian foreign minister
Heruy Wolde Selassie (1878–1938). Selassie was a philosopher and historian, and had mastered several European languages. He had previously served as secretary to Emperor
Menelik II (r. 1889–1913). At the time the list was written in 1922, Selassie was president of the special court in
Addis Ababa, whose job was to resolve disputes between Ethiopians and foreigners. Kropp noted that Selassie's historical sources include the Bible, Christian Arab writers
Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid (1205–1273) and
Ibn al-Rāhib (1205–1295), and Christian traveller and writer
Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160–240). Kropp argued that Selassie was one of a number of Ethiopian writers who sought to synchronize Ethiopian history with the wider Christian-Oriental histories. This was aided by the translation of Arabic texts in the 17th century. Kropp also felt that the developing field of
Egyptology influenced Selassie's writings, particularly from
Eduard Meyer,
Gaston Maspero and
Alexandre Moret, whose works were published in French in
Addis Ababa in the early 20th century. Kropp believed that Selassie was also assisted by French missionaries and the works they held in their libraries. Kropp additionally theorized that Tafari Makonnen played a large role in the writing of the list. Selassie wrote a book titled
Wazema which contained a version of the regnal list. The title "
Wazema" translates to
The Vigil, a metaphor to celebrate the history of the kings of Ethiopia. The book was divided into two sections, the first deals with political Ethiopian history from the dawn of history to modern times, while the second section deals with the history of the Ethiopian church. Kropp noted there were three different versions of the regnal list published in the works of Selassie. Selassie's regnal list omits the first dynasty of Tafari's list – the so-called "Tribe of Ori or Aram" – and also the first three rulers of the second dynasty, instead beginning in 2545 BC with king
Sebtah. Selassie himself stated that he used European literature among his sources, including James Bruce's
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790). Manfred Kropp felt the existence of multiple versions of the regnal list suggest that Selassie grew increasingly critical of the sources he used for the first version of the list in 1922. Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie commented that Heruy Wolde Selassie "strove for accuracy" but the sources he used for
Wazema "precluded his success". Manfred Kropp noted one important source for the information in
Wazema. Selassie himself told the reader that if they wish to find out about more about
Joktan, the supposed founder of the Ag'azyan dynasty, they could consult page 237 of a book by "Moraya". At first Kropp thought this was referring to
Alexandre Moret, but it was later made clear that Selassie's regnal list had been significantly inspired by a book called ''Histoire de l'Éthiopie'' by Louis J. Morié, published in 1904.
Louis J. Morié's ''Histoire de l'Éthiopie'' Louis J. Morié was a French historian who wrote a history of Ethiopia in the early 20th century. The two-volume work, titled ''Histoire de l'Éthiopie (Nubie et Abyssinie)'', was published in 1904, the first volume focusing on ancient
Nubia (called "Ancient Ethiopia" by Morié) and the second volume focusing on
Abyssinia ("Modern Ethiopia"). An abridged edition was printed in 1897, but only 100 copies were made for the author's friends. Historian identified the first volume as a key source in the creation of the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list and provided evidence from Morié's text that corroborated the names and information on the list. Kropp noted that Morié's book was more imaginative than scientific in its approach to Ethiopian history and blamed Selassie's European friends and contemporaries for the influence of Morié's book on Selassie's writing of Ethiopian history.
E. A. Wallis Budge mentions Morié's book in his own similarly titled two-volume work
A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, but surprisingly makes no mention of the clear similarity between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list. Charles Rey, in his book
Unconquered Abyssinia, mentioned an "enthusiastic French writer" who had dated "the birth of the Abyssinian monarchy from the foundation of the Kingdom of
Meroë by
Cush about 5800 B.C." but Rey felt this writer could "not be taken seriously" because of his belief that the
Deluge was a historical event. Rey was likely referring to Morié, who had claimed that 5800 BC was the approximate date when
Cush began ruling
Aethiopia and he also treated the Biblical
flood narrative as historical fact. Like Budge, Rey apparently did not notice the striking the similarities between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list. Writing for
Asiatic Review, Frederick A. Edwards noted that Morié had "[attempted] to bring all the Kings named in the various [Ethiopian]
lists into one line of succession" but warned readers that his work was an "unsafe guide" that "may well be disregarded" despite "[posing] as an authoritative precisian". Edwards observed that Morié's "identifications and his dates are quite arbitrary" and fails to provide authoritative sources for why these dates were chosen. Edwards concludes his brief overview of Morié's work by stating "[Morié's] identifications of Kings in one list with those in another are often forced and unsatisfactory, and he has fallen into some obvious errors." Morié's book displays his desire to hold on to religion and Biblical narratives in a world that was increasingly looking towards science. He showed concern with the possibility of abandoning religion, which would result in the "civilized" peoples of the world to descend down the moral scale. Morié felt that it was possible for science and religion to be in agreement. He described
Atheism as a cause of moral and political decadence. Because of his anxieties of the decline of religion, Morié sought to base his historical narrative around the Biblical timeline. He described the
Book of Genesis as the best source to consult on the most remote parts of human history. Morié believed the "Ethiopian state of
Meroe" was the oldest empire of the post-
Flood world, having been founded by
Cush of the Bible, and went on to birth the kingdoms of
Egypt,
Uruk,
Babylon,
Assyria and
Abyssinia. Morié followed the Biblical tradition by crediting
Nimrod, a son of Cush, with founding Uruk and Babylon, and crediting
Mizraim, a son of
Ham, with founding
Egypt. He additionally identified
Mizraim with the Egyptian god
Osiris,
Ham with
Amun and
Cush with
Khonsu. Morié defined the history of "Ethiopia" as divided into two parts; Ancient
Nubia and Christian
Abyssinia, and defined "Ethiopians" as the
Nubian and
Abyssinian peoples. Morié acknowledged the potential confusion this could cause and thus occasionally used "Abyssinia" to specify which of these two regions he was writing about, with a priority of using "Ethiopia" for ancient Nubia.
Alaqa Taye's History of the People of Ethiopia Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam (1861–1924) was a
Protestant Ethiopian scholar, translator and teacher whose written works include books on grammar, religion and Ethiopian history. He was ordered by Emperor
Menelik II to write a complete history of Ethiopia using Ethiopian, European and Arab sources. Taye's first historical work was
Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik ("History of the People of Ethiopia"), published in 1922, the same year Tafari's regnal list was written. The book contained legends and folk stories around the origins of different people of Ethiopia.
Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik was a condensed from of a much larger work titled
Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik ("History of the Ethiopian State"), which has not been published and is only known to exist in partial form as manuscripts. Sergew Hable Selassie felt this book did not "do justice to [Taye's] erudition and does not reflect his true ability", as it was based on "unreliable sources" and was "not at all systematic".
History of the People of Ethiopia contains a regnal list that matches closely with the one copied by Tafari. The first edition from 1922 included a list of monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ, beginning with
Bazen (8 BC). The sixth edition from 1965 expanded the list to include monarchs who reigned from Akhunas Saba II (1930 BC) onwards, corresponding with the Ag'azyan and Menelik dynasties of Tafari's list. The first edition does refer to the earlier dynasties of Ori and Kam and provides some background information on them, despite not including them in the regnal list at the end of the book. The longer text
Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik originally contained more in-depth information on all the dynasties that appear on Tafari's version of the regnal list. In recent years, there has been more credible and conclusive evidence that some of
Alaqa Taye's manuscripts were acquired by
Heruy Wolde Selassie and published as his own works, including
Wazema. Such evidence strengthens the possibility that Taye wrote the original regnal list instead of Selassie.
Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik preceded the publication of
Heruy Wolde Selassie's book
Wazema by at least seven years.
Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam's statement "what we say from the historians of the ancients is from Murtad and the
Azurotet of Egypt" seems to confirm Kropp's theory. Manfred Kropp theorized the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list may have been influenced by the works of
Ibn al-Rāhib, a 13th-century Coptic historian whose works were translated into
Ge'ez by Ethiopian writer
Enbaqom in the 16th century, and
Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid, another 13th century Coptic historian whose work ''Al-Majmu' al-Mubarak
(The Blessed Collection'') was also translated around the same time. Both writers partially based their information on ancient history from the works of
Julius Africanus and through him quote the historical traditions of Egypt as recorded by
Manetho. Jirgis was known as "Wälda-Amid" in Ethiopia. Kropp believed that some of the names of the early part of Tafari's regnal list were taken from a regnal list included within Jirgis' text which draws upon traditions from Manetho and the
Old Testament. A medieval Arab text called
Akhbar al-Zaman (
The History of Time), dated to between 940 and 1140, may have been an earlier version of the regnal list Morié saw. It is likely based on earlier works such as those of Abu Ma'shar (dated to c. 840–860). It was from this point onward that the Axumites began referring to themselves as "
Ethiopians", the Greco-Roman term previously used largely for the Kushites. Following this, the inhabitants of Axum (modern-day
Ethiopia and
Eritrea) were able to claim lineage from the "Ethiopians" or "Aethiopians" mentioned in the Bible who were actually
Kushites. Professor of
Anthropology Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban believed the inclusion of Kushite rulers on the 1922 regnal list suggests that the traditions of ancient Nubia were considered culturally compatible with those of Axum. Makeda, the Biblical
Queen of Sheba, was referred to as "Candace" or "Queen Mother" in the
Kebra Nagast, suggesting a cultural connection between Ethiopia and the ancient kingdom of
Kush. Portuguese missionary
Francisco Álvares, who travelled to Ethiopia in 1520, recorded one Ethiopian tradition which claimed that
Yeha was "the favourite residence of Queen Candace, when she honoured the country with her presence". . He defined "Aethiopes" as being south of
Egypt and including
Meroe. E. A. Wallis Budge theorized that one of the reasons why the name "Ethiopia" was applied to
Abyssinia was because
Syrian monks identified
Kush and Nubia with Abyssinia when translating the Bible from
Greek to
Ge'ez. Budge further noted that translators of the Bible into Greek identified Kush with Ethiopia and this was carried over into the translation from Greek to
Ge'ez. Louis J. Morié likewise believed the adoption of the word "Ethiopia" by the
Abyssinians was due to their desire to search for their origins in the Bible and coming across the word "Ethiopia" in Greek translations. Historian Adam Simmons noted the 3rd century Greek translation of the Bible translated the
Hebrew toponym "Kūš" into "
Aethiopia". He argued that
Abyssinia did not cement its "Ethiopian" identity until the translation of the
Kebra Nagast from Arabic to
Ge'ez during the reign of
Amda Seyon I (r. 1314–1344). This geographical definition confirms that in ancient times the term "Aethiopia" was commonly used to refer to
Nubia and the
Kingdom of Kush rather than modern day
Ethiopia. The earliest known writer to use the name "Ethiopia" for the region of the
Kingdom of Axum was
Philostorgius in c. 440 AD. '' Scottish traveller
James Bruce, in his multi-volume work
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile included a drawing of a stele found in Axum and brought back to
Gondar by the Ethiopian emperor. The stele had carved figures of Egyptian gods and was inscribed with
hieroglyphs. E. A. Wallis Budge believed the stele to be a "Cippi of
Horus" which were placed in homes and temples to keep evil spirits away. He noted that these date from the end of the
Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 664–525 BC) onwards. Budge believed this was proof of contacts between Egypt and Axum in the early 4th century BC. Archaeological excavations in the
Kassala region have also revealed direct contact with Pharaonic Egypt. Some tombs excavated in the
Yeha region, the likely capital of the
Dʿmt kingdom, contained imported
albastron dated to c. 770–404 BC which had a Napatan or Egyptian origin. Budge noted that none of the Egyptian and Kushite kings on the 1922 list appear on other known regnal lists from Ethiopia. He believed that contemporary Ethiopian priests had been "reading a modern European History of Egypt" and had incorporated in the regnal list Egyptian pharaohs who had "laid Nubia and other parts of the
Sudan under tribute", as well as the names of various
Kushite kings and
Priest kings. To support his argument, he stated that while the names of Abyssinian kings have meanings, the names of Egyptian kings would be meaningless if translated into the
Ethiopian language. Manfred Kropp likewise noted that no Ethiopian manuscript prior to the 1922 regnal list included names of monarchs resembling those used by Egyptian rulers. A comparison of known Ethiopian regnal lists shows that most of the monarchs on the 1922 list with Egyptian or Nubian names do not have these elements in their names on other regnal lists (see
Regnal lists of Ethiopia). For example, the 102nd king on Tafari's list, Amen Hotep Zagdur, only appears as "Zagdur" on earlier regnal lists. The next king, Aksumay Ramissu, is only known as "Aksumay" on earlier lists, while the 106th king, Abralyus Wiyankihi II, was previously only known as "Abralyus". The 111th king, Tsawi Terhak Warada Nagash, is a combination of multiple kings. One king named "Sawe" or "Za Tsawe" is listed as the fifth king following
Menelik I according to some lists, while another king named "Warada Nagash" is named as the eighth king following Menelik I on different lists. No known list includes both kings, and the 1922 list combined the two different kings as a single entry, with the addition of the name "Terhak", to be equated with the Kushite Pharaoh
Taharqa, who otherwise does not appear on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists. Also missing from earlier Ethiopian regnal lists are the "Kandake" queens. , High Priest of Amun of Upper Egypt between c. 1080 and 1074 BC, shown here with wife Nodjmet The inclusion of the
High Priests of Amun who ruled Upper Egypt between c. 1080 and 943 BC can be directly traced to Morié's ''Histoire de l'Éthiopie
and contemporary Egyptology. The association between these Egyptian High Priests and Aethiopia'' was particularly strong in European
Egyptological writings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, several major
Egyptologists (such as
Heinrich Brugsch,
James Breasted and
George Reisner) believed that the rise of the
Kush kingdom was due to the influence of the
High Priests of Amun moving into Nubia towards the end of the
Twentieth Dynasty because of political conflict arising at the end of the
New Kingdom. Brugsch in particular entertained the idea that the early Kushite kings were lineal descendants of the priests from Egypt, though this was explicitly rejected by Breasted. Later Egyptologists
A. J. Arkell and
Walter Emery theorized that a priestly "government in exile" had influenced the Kushite kingdom. E. A. Wallis Budge agreed with these ideas and suggested that the High Priests of Amun moved south to Nubia due to the rise of the
Libyan pharaohs in Lower Egypt, and consolidated their high position by intermarrying with Nubian women. Budge further theorised that the name of the Nubian pharaoh
Piye or "Piankhi" was taken from that of the High Priest of Amun
Piankh and he was possibly Piankh's descendant. Such ideas around the Kushite monarchy originating from this specific line of priests are now considered outdated, but the popularity of these theories in the early 20th century explains their inclusion, in almost exact chronological order, on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Greek sources , whereas Beazley and Bothmer regard him as an attendant of Memnon. Artist: Swing Painter Origin: Attica Category: vase painting Material: terracotta Dating: -460 – -440 Inventory A130 A number of figures from
Greek mythology are included on the regnal list, in most cases due to being described as "
Aethiopian" in ancient sources. Louis J. Morié's ''Histoire de l'Éthiopie'' is largely responsible for their inclusion. His book included
Memnon, a mythical king of "Aethiopia" who fought in the
Trojan War, his father
Tithonus, and his brother
Emathion, who are all included on the regnal list under the names Amen Emhat II (83), Titon Satiyo (81) and Hermantu (82).
Cassiopeia was also mentioned in Morié's book, but he confusingly uses the name for two different women. This results in the 1922 regnal list including Cassiopeia under the name of Kasiyope (49) while her husband
Cepheus is listed four hundred years later under the name Kefe (71). The list additionally included figures who were not part of Morié's narrative, showing that the author used other sources to build the regnal list.
Diodorus' work (including
Bibliotheca Historia) influenced the inclusion of the "Aethiopian" king
Actisanes (65) and the Egyptian king Mandes (66).
Manetho's
Aegyptiaca is another source for certain names on the regnal list, such as
Sebikos (123),
Tarakos (125) and Sabakon (122).
Conflict with other Ethiopian traditions The list occasionally contradicts other Ethiopian traditions. One example is that of king
Angabo I, who is placed in the middle of the Ag'azyan dynasty on this list but in earlier traditions was the founder of a new dynasty. In both cases the dating is given as the
14th century BC.
E. A. Wallis Budge noted that there were differing versions of the chronological order of the Ethiopian kings, with some lists stating that a king named
Aithiopis was the first to rule while other lists claim that the first king was
Adam. Tafari's list instead begins with
Aram.
Responses to the regnal list Contemporary historian Manfred Kropp described the regnal list as an artfully woven document developed as a rational and scientific attempt by an educated Ethiopian from the early 20th century to reconcile historical knowledge of Ethiopia. Kropp noted that the regnal list has often been viewed by historians as little more than an example of a vague notion of historical tradition in north-east Africa. He added that the working methods and sources used by the author of the list remain unclear. Kropp further stated that despite some rulers' names having astonishing similarities to those of Egyptian and
Meroitic/Kushite rulers, there has been little attempt to critically examine the regnal list in relation to other Ethiopian sources. He noted that Tafari's regnal list was the first Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to provide names of kings from the 970th year of the world's creation onwards without any chronological gaps. In particular, it was the first Ethiopian regnal list to consistently fill in all dates from the time of
Solomon to the
Zagwe dynasty. Kropp felt that the regnal list was a result of incorporating non-native traditions of "
Aethiopia" into native Ethiopian history. Egyptologist
E. A. Wallis Budge (1857–1934) was dismissive of the claims of great antiquity made by the
Abyssinians, whom he described as having a "passionate desire to be considered a very ancient nation", which had been aided by the "vivid imagination of their scribes" who borrowed traditions from the
Semites (such as
Yamanites,
Himyarites and
Hebrews) and modified them to "suit [their] aspirations". He noted the lack of pre-Christian regnal lists and believed there was no 'kingdom' of Abyssinia/Ethiopia until the time of king
Zoskales (c. 200 AD). Budge additionally noted that all extant manuscripts date to the 17th–19th centuries and believed that any regnal lists found in them originated from Arab and Coptic writers. Budge felt the 1922 regnal list "proves" that "almost all kings of
Abyssinia were of Asiatic origin" and descended from "Southern or Northern Semites" before the reign of
Yekuno Amlak. However, native Ethiopian rule before Yekuno Amlak is evidenced by the kingdoms of
D'mt (c. 980–400 BC) and
Aksum (c. 150 BC–960 AD), as well as by the rule of the
Zagwe dynasty.
The Geographical Journal reviewed
In the Country of the Blue Nile in 1928, and noted the regnal list contained "many more names [...] than in previously published lists" and was "evidently a careful compilation" which helped to "clear up the tangled skein of Ethiopian history". However, the reviewer did also notice that it "[contained] discrepancies" which Rey "[made] no attempt to clear up". The newspaper noted that
Adam was no longer "claimed by Ethiopians as the original ancestor of the kings of Ethiopia" and instead the modern Abyssinians claimed their first king was "Ori, or
Aram, the son of
Shem". The same article mentioned the 531-year gap between the
Flood and the fall of the
Tower of Babel, during which time "42 different Ethiopian sovereigns ruled Africa", though the regnal list itself did not provide any names for this time period. == Regnal list ==