13th century Background on a
stag hunt Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the
First Barons' War. England was ruled by King
John, the third of the
Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle of , or "force and will", taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. John had lost most of his ancestral lands in France to King
Philip II in 1204 and had struggled to regain them for many years, raising extensive taxes on the barons to accumulate money to fight a war which ended in expensive failure in 1214. Following the defeat of his allies at the
Battle of Bouvines, John had to
sue for peace and pay compensation. John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. A triumph would have strengthened his position, but in the face of his defeat, within a few months after his return from France, John found that rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule. The rebels took an oath that they would "stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm", and demanded that the King confirm the
Charter of Liberties that had been declared by King
Henry I in the previous century, and which was perceived by the barons to protect their rights. The rebel leadership was unimpressive by the standards of the time, even disreputable, but were united by their hatred of John;
Robert Fitzwalter, later elected leader of the rebel barons, claimed publicly that John had attempted to rape his daughter, and was implicated in a plot to assassinate John in 1212. , John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, and sponsored discussions in
Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring. Both sides appealed to
Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. During the negotiations, the rebellious barons produced an initial document, which historians have termed "the Unknown Charter of Liberties", which drew on Henry I's Charter of Liberties for much of its language; seven articles from that document later appeared in the "Articles of the Barons" and the subsequent charter. It was John's hope that the Pope would give him valuable legal and moral support, and accordingly John played for time; the King had declared himself to be a papal vassal in 1213 and correctly believed he could count on the Pope for help. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. In a further move to shore up his support, John took an oath to become a
crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law, even though many felt the promise was insincere. Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction. They congregated at
Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on
London,
Lincoln, and
Exeter. John's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London, they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from the royalists. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, but this was not attractive to the rebels.
Stephen Langton, the
archbishop of Canterbury, had been working with the rebel barons on their demands, and after the suggestion of papal arbitration failed, John instructed Langton to organise peace talks.
Great Charter of 1215 John met the rebel leaders at
Runnymede, a
water-meadow on the south bank of the
River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of
Windsor Castle and the rebel base at
Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the 'Articles of the Barons'. Stephen Langton's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter". By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued. Although, as the historian
David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory", it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men—in particular, the barons. The rights of
serfs were included in articles 16, 20 and 28.
Charters of the Welsh Princes Magna Carta was the first document in which reference is made to English and Welsh law alongside one another, including the principle of the common acceptance of the lawful judgement of peers. Chapter 56: The return of lands and liberties to Welshmen if those lands and liberties had been taken by English (and vice versa) without a law abiding judgement of their peers. Chapter 57: The return of
Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, illegitimate son of
Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great) along with other Welsh hostages which were originally taken for "peace" and "good".
Counsellors named in Magna Carta The preamble to Magna Carta includes the names of the following 27 ecclesiastical and secular magnates who had counselled John to accept its terms. The names include some of the moderate reformers, notably Archbishop
Stephen Langton, and some of John's loyal supporters, such as
William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the charter itself: •
Stephen Langton,
Archbishop of Canterbury and
Cardinal •
Henry de Loundres,
Archbishop of Dublin •
William of Sainte-Mère-Église,
Bishop of London •
Peter des Roches,
Bishop of Winchester •
Jocelin of Wells,
Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury •
Hugh of Wells,
Bishop of Lincoln •
Walter de Gray,
Bishop of Worcester •
William de Cornhill,
Bishop of Coventry •
Benedict of Sausetun,
Bishop of Rochester •
Pandulf Verraccio, subdeacon and
papal legate to England • Aimery de Sainte-Maure, Master of the
Knights Templar in England •
William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke •
William Longespée, Earl of Salisbury •
William de Warenne, Earl of Surrey •
William d'Aubigny, Earl of Arundel •
Alan of Galloway,
Constable of Scotland •
Warin FitzGerold •
Peter FitzHerbert •
Hubert de Burgh,
Seneschal of
Poitou •
Hugh de Neville •
Matthew FitzHerbert •
Thomas Basset •
Alan Basset •
Philip d'Aubigny •
Robert of Ropsley •
John Marshal •
John FitzHugh The Council of Twenty-Five Barons The names of the Twenty-Five Barons appointed under clause 61 to monitor John's future conduct are not given in the charter itself, but do appear in four early sources, all seemingly based on a contemporary listing: a late-13th-century collection of law tracts and statutes, a
Reading Abbey manuscript now in
Lambeth Palace Library, and the and of
Matthew Paris. The process of appointment is not known, but the names were drawn almost exclusively from among John's more active opponents. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the original sources: •
Richard de Clare,
Earl of Hertford •
William de Forz,
Earl of Albemarle •
Geoffrey de Mandeville,
Earl of Essex and
Gloucester •
Saer de Quincy,
Earl of Winchester •
Henry de Bohun,
Earl of Hereford •
Roger Bigod,
Earl of Norfolk and
Suffolk •
Robert de Vere,
Earl of Oxford •
William Marshal junior •
Robert Fitzwalter, baron of
Little Dunmow •
Gilbert de Clare, heir to the
earldom of Hertford •
Eustace de Vesci, Lord of
Alnwick Castle •
Hugh Bigod, heir to the Earldoms of
Norfolk and
Suffolk •
William de Mowbray, Lord of
Axholme Castle •
William Hardell,
Mayor of the
City of London •
William de Lanvallei, Lord of
Walkern •
Robert de Ros, Baron of
Helmsley •
John de Lacy, Constable of
Chester and Lord of
Pontefract Castle •
Richard de Percy •
John FitzRobert de Clavering, Lord of
Warkworth Castle •
William Malet •
Geoffrey de Saye •
Roger de Montbegon, Lord of
Hornby Castle, Lancashire •
William of Huntingfield,
Sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk •
Richard de Montfichet •
William d'Aubigny, Lord of
Belvoir Excommunicated rebels In September 1215, the papal commissioners in England—
Subdeacon Pandulf,
Peter des Roches,
Bishop of Winchester, and Simon, Abbot of
Reading—excommunicated the rebels, acting on instructions earlier received from Rome. A letter sent by the commissioners from
Dover on 5 September to Archbishop Langton explicitly names nine senior rebel barons (all members of the Council of Twenty-Five), and six clerics numbered among the rebel ranks:
Barons •
Robert Fitzwalter •
Saer de Quincy,
Earl of Winchester •
Richard de Clare,
Earl of Hertford •
Geoffrey de Mandeville,
Earl of Essex and
Gloucester •
Eustace de Vesci •
Richard de Percy •
John de Lacy, Constable of
Chester •
William d'Aubigny •
William de Mowbray Clerics •
Giles de Braose,
Bishop of Hereford • William,
Archdeacon of Hereford • Alexander the clerk (possibly Alexander of
St Albans) • Osbert de
Samara • John de Fereby • Robert, chaplain to Robert Fitzwalter
Great Charter of 1216 Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of
William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal
Guala Bicchieri, the
papal legate to England, then oversaw his coronation at
Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October. The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave
homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord.
Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope's
vassal and
ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry
took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome. The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. The move was not successful, and opposition to Henry's new government hardened.
Great Charter of 1217 re-issued in 1225, held by the
British Library In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the
Battle of Lincoln in May. Meanwhile, support for Louis' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne. In return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion. In the absence of a settlement, Louis stayed in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet arrived in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the
Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations. The factions came to agreement on the final
Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit. It included a promise that Louis' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed. He joined the
Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end. A
great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation. This council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. The charter resembled that of 1216, although some additional clauses were added to protect the rights of the barons over their feudal subjects, and the restrictions on the Crown's ability to levy taxation were watered down. There remained a range of disagreements about the management of the royal forests, which involved a special legal system that had resulted in a source of considerable royal revenue. Complaints existed over both the implementation of these courts, and the geographic boundaries of the royal forests. A complementary charter, the
Charter of the Forest, was created, pardoning existing forest offences, imposing new controls over the forest courts, and establishing a review of the forest boundaries. To distinguish the two charters, the term ("the great charter of liberties") was used by the scribes to refer to the larger document, which in time became known simply as Magna Carta.
Great Charter of 1225 , held in the
National Archives Magna Carta became increasingly embedded into English political life during Henry III's
minority. As the King grew older, his government slowly began to recover from the civil war, regaining control of the counties and beginning to raise revenue once again, taking care not to overstep the terms of the charters. Henry remained a minor and his government's legal ability to make permanently binding decisions on his behalf was limited. In 1223, the tensions over the status of the charters became clear in the
royal court, when Henry's government attempted to reassert its rights over its properties and revenues in the counties, facing resistance from many communities that argued—if sometimes incorrectly—that the charters protected the new arrangements. This resistance resulted in an argument between Archbishop Langton and
William Brewer over whether the King had any duty to fulfil the terms of the charters, given that he had been forced to agree to them. On this occasion, Henry gave oral assurances that he considered himself bound by the charters, enabling a royal inquiry into the situation in the counties to progress. In 1225, the question of Henry's commitment to the charters re-emerged, when Louis VIII of France invaded Henry's remaining provinces in France,
Poitou and
Gascony. Henry's army in Poitou was under-resourced, and the province quickly fell. It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England. In early 1225, a great council approved a tax of £40,000 to dispatch an army, which quickly retook Gascony. In exchange for agreeing to support Henry, the barons demanded that the King reissue Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest. The content was almost identical to the 1217 versions, but in the new versions, the King declared that the charters were issued of his own "spontaneous and free will" and confirmed them with the royal seal, giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than the previous versions. The barons anticipated that the King would act in accordance with these charters, subject to the law and moderated by the advice of the nobility. Uncertainty continued, and in 1227, when he was declared of age and able to rule independently, Henry announced that future charters had to be issued under his own seal. This brought into question the validity of the previous charters issued during his minority, and Henry actively threatened to overturn the Charter of the Forest unless the taxes promised in return for it were actually paid. In 1253, Henry confirmed the charters once again in exchange for taxation. Henry placed a symbolic emphasis on rebuilding royal authority, but his rule was relatively circumscribed by Magna Carta. He generally acted within the terms of the charters, which prevented the Crown from taking extrajudicial action against the barons, including the fines and expropriations that had been common under his father, John. The charters did not address the sensitive issues of the appointment of royal advisers and the distribution of patronage, and they lacked any means of enforcement if the King chose to ignore them. The inconsistency with which he applied the charters over the course of his rule alienated many barons, even those within his own faction. Despite the various charters, the provision of royal justice was inconsistent and driven by the needs of immediate politics: sometimes action would be taken to address a legitimate baronial complaint, while on other occasions the problem would simply be ignored. The royal courts, which toured the country to provide justice at the local level, typically for lesser barons and the gentry claiming grievances against major lords, had little power, allowing the major barons to dominate the local justice system. Henry's rule became lax and careless, resulting in a reduction in royal authority in the provinces and, ultimately, the collapse of his authority at court. In 1258, a group of barons seized power from Henry in a ''
coup d'état'', citing the need to strictly enforce Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest, creating a new baronial-led government to advance reform through the
Provisions of Oxford. The barons were not militarily powerful enough to win a decisive victory, and instead appealed to
Louis IX of France in 1263–1264 to arbitrate on their proposed reforms. The reformist barons argued their case based on Magna Carta, suggesting that it was inviolable under English law and that the King had broken its terms. Louis came down firmly in favour of Henry, but the French arbitration failed to achieve peace as the rebellious barons refused to accept the verdict. England slipped back into the
Second Barons' War, which was won by Henry's son,
the Lord Edward. Edward also invoked Magna Carta in advancing his cause, arguing that the reformers had taken matters too far and were themselves acting against Magna Carta. In a conciliatory gesture after the barons had been defeated, in 1267 Henry issued the
Statute of Marlborough, which included a fresh commitment to observe the terms of Magna Carta.
Witnesses in 1225 The following 65 individuals were witnesses to the 1225 issue of Magna Carta, named in the order in which they appear in the charter itself: •
Stephen Langton,
Archbishop of Canterbury and
Cardinal •
Eustace of Fauconberg,
Bishop of London •
Jocelin of Wells,
Bishop of Bath •
Peter des Roches,
Bishop of Winchester •
Hugh of Wells,
Bishop of Lincoln •
Richard Poore,
Bishop of Salisbury •
Benedict of Sausetun,
Bishop of Rochester •
William de Blois,
Bishop of Worcester •
John of Fountains,
Bishop of Ely •
Hugh Foliot,
Bishop of Hereford •
Ralph Neville,
Bishop of Chichester •
William Briwere,
Bishop of Exeter • William of Trumpington,
Abbot of St Albans •
Hugh of Northwold, Abbot of
Bury St Edmunds • Richard,
Abbot of Battle • the Abbot of
St Augustine's, Canterbury •
Randulf of Evesham, Abbot of
Evesham • Richard of Barking,
Abbot of Westminster • Alexander of Holderness,
Abbot of Peterborough • Simon, Abbot of
Reading • Robert of Hendred,
Abbot of Abingdon • John Walsh, Abbot of
Malmesbury • the Abbot of
Winchcombe • the Abbot of
Hyde • the Abbot of
Chertsey • the Abbot of
Sherborne • the Abbot of
Cerne • the Abbot of
Abbotsbury • the Abbot of
Milton • the Abbot of
Selby • the Abbot of
Whitby • the Abbot of
Cirencester •
Hubert de Burgh,
Justiciar of England and Ireland •
Ranulf, Earl of Chester and Lincoln •
William Longespée, Earl of Salisbury •
William de Warenne, Earl of Surrey •
Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester and Hertford •
William de Ferrers, Earl of Derby •
William de Mandeville, Earl of Essex •
Hugh Bigod, Earl of Norfolk •
William de Forz,
Earl of Albemarle •
Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford •
John de Lacy, Constable of
Chester •
Robert de Ros •
Robert Fitzwalter •
Robert de Vieuxpont •
William Brewer •
Richard de Montfichet •
Peter FitzHerbert •
Matthew FitzHerbert •
William d'Aubigny •
Robert Gresley •
Reginald de Braose •
John of Monmouth •
John FitzAlan •
Hugh de Mortimer •
William de Beauchamp •
William de St John •
Peter de Maulay •
Brian de Lisle •
Thomas of Moulton •
Richard de Argentan •
Geoffrey de Neville •
William de Maudit •
John de Baalun Great Charter of 1297 in
Washington, D.C. King
Edward I reissued the Charters of 1225 in 1297 in return for a new tax. It is this version which remains on the
statute book today, although with most articles now repealed. The (
Confirmation of Charters) was issued in
Norman French by Edward I in 1297. Edward, needing money, had taxed the nobility, and they had armed themselves against him, forcing Edward to issue his confirmation of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter to avoid civil war. The nobles had sought to add another document, the , to Magna Carta. Edward I's government was not prepared to concede this, they agreed to the issuing of the , confirming the previous charters and confirming the principle that taxation should be by consent, although the precise manner of that consent was not laid down. A passage mandates that copies shall be distributed in "cathedral churches throughout our realm, there to remain, and shall be read before the people two times by the year", hence the permanent installation of a copy in
Salisbury Cathedral. In the Confirmation's second article, it is confirmed that:
Great Charter of 1300 With the reconfirmation of the charters in 1300, an additional document was granted, the (
The Articles upon the Charters). It was composed of 17 articles and sought in part to deal with the problem of enforcing the charters. Magna Carta and the Forest Charter were to be issued to the
sheriff of each county, and should be read four times a year at the meetings of the county courts. Each county should have a committee of three men who could hear complaints about violations of the Charters.
Pope Clement V continued the papal policy of supporting monarchs (who ruled by divine grace) against any claims in Magna Carta which challenged the King's rights, and annulled the in 1305. Edward I interpreted Clement V's
papal bull annulling the as effectively applying to the , although the latter was not specifically mentioned. In 1306 Edward I took the opportunity given by the Pope's backing to reassert forest law over large areas which had been "disafforested". Both Edward and the Pope were accused by some contemporary chroniclers of "perjury", and it was suggested by Robert McNair Scott that
Robert the Bruce refused to make peace with Edward I's son,
Edward II, in 1312 with the justification: "How shall the king of England keep faith with me, since he does not observe the sworn promises made to his liege men ...".
Magna Carta's influence on English medieval law The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of
Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king". In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters. In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used.
14th–15th centuries During the reign of King
Edward III six measures, later known as the
Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man" becoming "no man, of whatever
estate or condition he may be", and introduced the phrase "
due process of law" for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land". Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir
Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King
Henry VI. By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased.
16th century During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons' War shifted.
Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent
Wars of the Roses, followed by
Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy. Tudor historians rediscovered the
Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th-century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy", showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons". Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the
1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect. The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the of 1508 by
Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by
John Rastell in 1527.
Thomas Berthelet, Pynson's successor as the royal printer during 1530–1547, printed an edition of the text along with other "ancient statutes" in 1531 and 1540. In 1534,
George Ferrers published the first unabridged English-language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses. The mid-sixteenth century funerary monument
Sir Rowland Hill of
Soulton, placed in
St Stephens Wallbroke, included a full statue of the Tudor statesman and judge holding a copy of Magna Carta. Hill was a
Mercer and a
Lord Mayor of London; both of these statuses were shared with
Serlo the Mercer who was a negotiator and enforcer of Magna Carta. The original monument was lost in the
Great Fire of London, but it was restated on a 110 foot tall column on his family's estates in Shropshire. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in Magna Carta in England. Legal historians concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws which had been temporarily overthrown by the
Norman invasion of 1066, and been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th-century legal principles. Modern historians regard this narrative as fundamentally incorrect, and many refer to it as a "
myth". The antiquarian
William Lambarde published what he believed were the Anglo-Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th-century English Parliament back to this period, but he misinterpreted the dates of many documents concerned.
Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th-century jury system and judicial processes. Antiquarians
Robert Beale,
James Morice and
Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government. Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament
Arthur Hall, faced sanctions.
17th–18th centuries Political tensions Edward Coke made extensive political use of Magna Carta. With the accession of
James VI of Scotland of the
House of Stuart to the English throne in 1603, when
Elizabeth I of England died childless ending the
Tudor dynasty, he became James of England, ruling each kingdom separately in a
composite monarchy. There were separate parliaments in each kingdom and separate legal traditions. James believed in the
divine right of kings and had ruled Scotland without limits on his power. In England under the Stuart kings, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy.
James I and
Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the
divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy. Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the
common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this
ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir
Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties". Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text – the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 – Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by
Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and
Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing" the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically", and taking a "very selective" approach to his analysis. More sympathetically,
J. C. Holt noted that the history of the charters had already become "distorted" by the time Coke was carrying out his work.
John Lilburne criticised Magna Carta as an inadequate definition of English liberties. In 1621, a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta; although this bill failed, lawyer
John Selden argued during
Darnell's Case in 1627 that the right of
habeas corpus was backed by Magna Carta. Coke supported the
Petition of Right in 1628, which cited Magna Carta in its preamble, attempting to extend the provisions, and to make them binding on the judiciary. The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear-cut than was being claimed, restricted the activities of antiquarians, arrested Coke for treason, and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta. Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right, and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King. England descended into
civil war in the 1640s, resulting in Charles I's execution in 1649. Under the
republic that followed, some questioned whether Magna Carta, an agreement with a monarch, was still relevant. An anti-
Cromwellian pamphlet published in 1660,
The English devil, said that the nation had been "compelled to submit to this Tyrant Nol or be cut off by him; nothing but a word and a blow, his Will was his Law; tell him of Magna Carta, he would lay his hand on his sword and cry Magna Farta". In a 2005 speech the
Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales,
Lord Woolf, repeated the claim that Cromwell had referred to Magna Carta as "Magna Farta".
Thomas Paine, whose 1776 pamphlet
Common Sense had played an important role in the
American Revolution, disregarded Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in his
Rights of Man, arguing that they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives.
Use in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States , Washington, D.C. When English colonists left for the New World, they brought royal charters that established the colonies. The
Massachusetts Bay Company charter, for example, stated that the colonists would "have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects." The
Virginia Charter of 1606, which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke, stated that the colonists would have the same "liberties, franchises and immunities" as people born in England. The
Massachusetts Body of Liberties contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta; when drafting it, the
Massachusetts General Court viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law. The other colonies would follow their example. In 1638,
Maryland sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province, but the request was denied by Charles I. In 1687,
William Penn published
The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property: being the birth-right of the Free-Born Subjects of England, which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil. Penn's comments reflected Coke's, indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a
fundamental law. The colonists drew on English law books, leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta, believing that it guaranteed trial by jury and
habeas corpus. The development of parliamentary supremacy in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the
Thirteen Colonies, which retained an adherence to
English common law, but it directly affected the relationship between Britain and the colonies. When American colonists fought against Britain, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties and rights that they believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta. In the late 18th century, the
United States Constitution became the
supreme law of the land, recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law. In addition, the Constitution included a similar writ in the
Suspension Clause, Article 1, Section 9: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it." Each of these proclaim that no person may be imprisoned or detained without evidence that he or she committed a crime. The
Ninth Amendment states that "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." The writers of the U.S. Constitution wished to ensure that the rights they already held, such as those that they believed were provided by Magna Carta, would be preserved unless explicitly curtailed. The
U.S. Supreme Court has explicitly referenced Edward Coke's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the
Sixth Amendment's right to a speedy trial.
19th–21st centuries Interpretation and applied by officials rather than John himself. Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian
William Stubbs's
Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high-water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John. This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late-Victorian jurist and historian
Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904,
Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta", which undermined the previously accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as
Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented" the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights. This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930
Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history,
1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a
Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People)". In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Carta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Carta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Carta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Carta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the
American Bar Association erected the
Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. leaving just clauses 1, 9 and 29 still in force (in England and Wales) after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the
Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in modern
Northern Ireland and also in the modern
Republic of Ireland by the
Statute Law Revision (Ireland) Act 1872. Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the
Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from
St. Paul's Churchyard by the
City of London. In his judgment the
Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and that the two other surviving clauses ironically concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London and could not help the defendants. Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration" and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W. L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said". It also remains a topic of great interest to historians;
Natalie Fryde characterised the charter as "one of the holiest of cows in English medieval history", with the debates over its interpretation and meaning unlikely to end. The majority of contemporary historians however see the interpretation of the charter as a unique and early charter of legal rights as a myth that was created centuries later. In many ways still a "sacred text", Magna Carta is generally considered part of the
uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom; in a 2005 speech, the
Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales,
Lord Woolf, described it as the "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status". Magna Carta was reprinted in
New Zealand in 1881 as one of the Imperial Acts in force there. Clause 29 of the document remains in force as part of New Zealand law. The document also continues to be honoured in the United States as an antecedent of the
United States Constitution and
Bill of Rights. In 1976, the UK lent one of four surviving originals of the 1215 Magna Carta to the United States for their bicentennial celebrations and also donated an ornate display case for it. The original was returned after one year, but a replica and the case are still on display in the
United States Capitol Crypt in
Washington, D.C. Celebration of the 800th anniversary in collaboration with
Lincoln Cathedral and
Salisbury Cathedral and supported by the law firm
Linklaters The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory events. The
British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript in February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist
Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork,
Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was shown at the British Library between May and July 2015. The artwork is a copy of the
Wikipedia article about Magna Carta (as it appeared on the document's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), hand-embroidered by over 200 people. On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries. On the same day,
Google celebrated the anniversary with a
Google Doodle. The copy held by
Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the
Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. A new visitor centre at
Lincoln Castle was opened for the anniversary. The
Royal Mint released two commemorative
two-pound coins. In 2014,
Bury St Edmunds in
Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214. ==Copies==