Fungi of New Zealand

'' === One of the many species that grow on native beech (Nothofagus) trees, pūtawa grows on dead logs for weeks until it reaches its maximum size. Found in the North Island and locally just north of Christchurch in the South Island, this bracket fungi can grow up to 30 cm across and 6 cm thick. Māori used these fungi as a fire starter when moving around, as the fungus burns very slowly and is hard to put out, requiring complete smothering. Similar species found elsewhere in the world have been known to have this same purpose – including lighting cigarette papers. There are records of this fungus being used for medicinal purposes, specifically to maintain pressure on bleeding wounds with strips of pūtawa acting as a naturally absorbent and elastic bandage. Because this species falls from their host when mature, this has made getting a reliable sequence in the New Zealand Fungarium collections difficult. This Hericium species has been named by both Pakeha and Māori for its distinctive fruiting bodies which appear like white icicles climbing along the forest floor and rotting logs. Its Māori name comes from the verb 'pekepeke' meaning to jump and the noun 'kiore' which is a native rat in New Zealand – describing its furry texture and sporadic network. When mature these fungi have a slime on their base, called 'gleba' that smells like rotten meat and attracts flies which helps them spread spores. They are known commonly as the 'Flower fungus' as it has 5–9 red petal-like arms on its fruiting body which can be seen above its soil substrate. Māori use Hakeke as a treatment when recovering from karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) or tutu (Coriaria arborea) poisoning as it grows on these trees. This trade is no longer present, instead hakeke from Chinese commercial farms is often imported into New Zealand. The fruiting body can be between 8–12 cm in diameter and has history as both food and medicine. Tawaka is eaten by steaming the fungus. This fungus grows mainly on manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and native bush but can be found growing in the roots of trees either solitary or in clusters. These can be found in Australia, New Zealand, and Malaysia. This fungus can be found in the native bush of every region of New Zealand except Northland. Enoki and the velvet shank taste similar, with enoki being commercially cultivated in China for over 1000 years. Velvet shank can be mistaken for the poisonous funeral bell (Galerina marginata). While these puffballs can grow large, like other Calvatia species they should only be consumed when young before they turn brown and begin releasing spores. This species is commonly eaten and used as off-label treatment, but when consumed mature they can cause gastrointestinal infections and acute respiratory disease (when consumed in large amounts). They have a spongy texture and a nutty flavour which meant they were both eaten by Māori and used as bandages on bleeding and burn wounds for its styptic qualities. These puffballs are a common source of treatment for diabetics as they are low in sugar but can block 50% of the enzymatic activity which causes diabetes symptoms. This helps regulate blood sugar and insulin in the body. The name translating to 'water of pukurau', the river being used to wash the puffballs before they were eaten. This is to help the spore propagate with wind before the fruiting body disintegrates. === Fairy ring champignon: Marasmius oreades === Also known as 'Scotch Bonnets', these are found from November through May in New Zealand. These small mushrooms average 8 cm tall and are named for their unique distribution. There are many stories about this phenomenon such as a witch's dance floor, or even dragon scorch marks. When this fungus dies, these mushrooms will pop up again in ring at the edge of the previous mycelium when the conditions are supportive to produce fruiting bodies. There is ongoing research into how these mushrooms maintain genetic integrity as the fruiting bodies produced by the mycelia are genetically homogenous. These are a popular mushroom in cuisine because they grow in large cohorts and only take a couple of hours to dehydrate in sunlight due to their small size. Currently there is not a definitive list of known agaric species in New Zealand, and identification of these mushrooms has to be done at the microscopic level. New Zealanders have foraged for these mushrooms for generations. Due to misidentification of the well-known and look-a-like death cap (Amanita phalloides) as 'fieldies' the number of mushroom poisonings in adults has increased. These mushrooms have traditionally been used to treat diabetes due to its insulin releasing properties to counter hyperglycaemia. === Horse mushroom: Agaricus arvensis group === The horse mushroom is named so because it grows where horses graze; in paddocks and fields as these tend to be high in nitrogen. These mushrooms often grow in groups and can also form fairy rings is thought to deplete water, potassium, and respiration rates in the 'scorched' zone of fairy rings. Horse mushrooms are large, 5–12 cm long and up to a 20 cm diameter cap. This fungi fruits multiple times in a season and has a cap size from 5–11 cm across. However, some research has flagged that these mushrooms are potentially poisonous and should be treated with caution and thoroughly cooked before consumption. The birch bolete has shown anti-microbial activity against human pathogens when in aqueous solution and has been proposed as a potential solution to increasing antibiotic resistance in pathogens. === Slippery jacks: Suillus granulatus; Suillus luteus === These boletes are similar to birch boletes and are not sought after for their taste, but they are edible and tend to grow in large groups. There are four species in the Suillus genus that grow in association with Pinus radiata in New Zealand and are found January through July all around New Zealand. === Peppery bolete: Chalciporus piperatus === Named for their spicy taste, Peppery boletes are found from January to June in the more temperate parts of New Zealand; excluding Northland and Gisborne. Pepper Boletes are thought to be parasitic, host-specific with the Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) as they occupy the same environments. They should only be eaten in small quantities and can cause gastric issues if not cooked thoroughly. === Porcini: Boletus edulis === Porcini are highly sought after by chefs and foragers for their unique taste. Their Italian common name means 'little pig' These mushrooms are introduced to New Zealand from England when curating Hagley Park in Christchurch where they can grow up to 30 cm tall with 25 cm caps. They are often in company with the toxic fly agaric and are much duller than these cohabitants. This makes the mushroom a potential for nutraceuticals with its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. These edible mushrooms are sought after for their large caps which can grow up to 30 cm in diameter. Wine caps have been found to help alleviate cancer progression and are recommended for consumption by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Association. Aside from these medicinal qualities, this mushroom is eaten around the world and noted for its sweet, floral flavour. === Shaggy parasols: Chlorophyllum brunneum/rachodes === There are two Chlorphyllum species in New Zealand which cannot be distinguished by eye. They are found in Northland, Waikato, Manawatu, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. There have been no unique health benefits associated with this species. It has yet to be cultivated with commercial stability as its ideal growing conditions are unknown. This morel has been found in Europe, Asia, America and Australasia. Black truffles have been cultivated commercially in New Zealand since 1993, but only 15% of truffières have been viable resulting in low commercial yield. There are only three native New Zealand tree species which form ectomycorrhizal associations and with biosecurity limitations, the introduction of new ectomycorrhizal fungi is unlikely and detrimental for truffle growing. Black truffles are considered a delicacy and have been nicknamed 'Black diamonds' due to their high demand and fickle cultivation nature. There are hopes to increase the truffle trade in New Zealand to export, with 1 kg selling from $2500 to $3500 NZD. This research also aims to harness the truffles' antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic compounds. This is due to the presence of specific bioactive compounds such as ascorbic acid, ergosterol, phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, and polysaccharides. == Fungi biocontrol ==

Biosecurity in New Zealand is strict due to the unique flora, fauna, and fungi found on its isolated shores. However, many introduced species have established both naturally and with anthropogenic aid. For this reason, tightly associated and often host-specific species are reviewed for potential introduction as biocontrol agents. This goes for plants, animals, and even fungi. For biocontrol the species must be deemed to keep the target species abated while also having minimal risk to other cohabitating species which are desirable in comparison to the target. They are not meant to extinguish the weed but reduce its competitive chances against native species. When done with rigorous vetting, biocontrol is a cost-effective method as the species becoming self-maintaining in a much smaller equilibrium than when they are first introduced. Fungi used as microherbicides in New Zealand are generally native to avoid biosecurity problems from importing exotic species of fungi. These species are often ineffective without management on the weed species due to a limiting factor which impedes their ability to keep the introduced species in check. For this method of biocontrol to be effective the limiting factor of the species needs to be identified and remediated to create a local disease epidemic on the target species. Microherbicides are effective biocontrol fungi as they are ephemeral and localised to where they are introduced, requiring physical contact with the weed to be effective, with an inability to cover long distances unaided. These are preferential to a chemical herbicide when a species-specific approach is needed, often when taxonomically similar crops are in the same area and a chemical herbicide would decimate all related species. == Therapeutic fungi ==

'' === The turn of the 21st century has seen an influx in biomedical research involving psychedelic compounds as psychiatry therapeutic tools. Currently countries such as Brazil, Israel, Canada, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States are at the forefront of this research with over 50 clinical trials over three years. Currently the government legislation has proven the main block on this research, with an extensive ban placed on psychedelic compound research in the 1960s. Tū Wairua is the first research proposal that has been granted a medicinal license for indigenous magic mushrooms with consent from both the New Zealand Ministry of Health and participating iwi and hapu. Utilising the psilocybin compound found in Psilocybe weraroa, this project is creating a homogeny between current biomedical practises and long standing indigenous traditions found both in New Zealand and around the world. This also poses an added threat as growing and foraging magic mushrooms (Pscilocybe) is illegal in New Zealand and considered a class A drug, carrying a maximum penalty of 6 months for possession or life in prison for distribution. == Culturally significant fungi ==

=== Vegetable caterpillar – Ophiocordyceps roberstii === Known as āwheto, the vegetable caterpillar was named so because early ecologists believed that the caterpillar infected was capable of turning into a tree. In reality, this is simply a fungus that infects the caterpillar as a host and uses its body as a source of nutrients to form its fruiting body. Then it will parasitise the caterpillars and take over their nervous system causing them to burrow into the ground. This ink is made by burning the infected caterpillars and grinding them into a powder with bird fat to form a paste. This is the only mushroom in the world to be on a bank note. === Inonotus illoydii - te kaikākā === This fungus infects the heartwood of totara (Podocarpus totara), creating a honeycomb-like structure that is valuable in Māori wood carving. This fungus rots the wood and weakens its integrity, making it non-suitable for waka or construction. == Parasitic species ==

Many fungi are saprophytic, meaning they take their nutrients from dead and decaying wood acting as decomposers and helping recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem. However, some fungi are parasitic, taking their nutrients from living organisms. This can cause issues when these types of fungi proliferate in agricultural and horticultural settings. Native parasitic fungi There are native parasites in New Zealand, but these are less harmful than introduced parasitic fungi as they have evolved in tandem with native species, forming an equilibrium. Some of these species are the bootlace mushroom (Armillaria novaezelandiae), Beech Strawberry (Cyttaria sp.), and the aforementioned Putawa and Vegetable Caterpillar fungi. Harore is one of the few native parasitic fungi that can damage horticultural crops when present in the soil that Pinus radiata and kiwifruit (Actinidia sp.) are planted. Once the soil has contaminated the roots it will spread to adjacent crops. Introduced parasitic fungi Introduced parasitic fungi are often the cause of disease in crops as native species are naive to their mechanism of action. Notable introduced parasitic fungi in New Zealand include Facial eczema (Pithomyces chartarum) in cattle and sheep. As well as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis which has attributed to decreasing frog populations. == Pathogenic fungi ==

Myrtle rust Myrtle rust (Austropuccinia psidii) is a plant pathogen that threatens New Zealand's ecosystems since its arrival from Australia in 2017. Named after its host specificity to Myrtaceae, Australian populations of Myrtaceae have been heavily infected and lost to myrtle rust. Myrtle rust is known to infect 12 of the 15 Myrtaceae species present in New Zealand. Its introduction into New Zealand carries a similar threat for taonga and economically significant species such as pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) and mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium). Kauri dieback Phytophthora agathidicida, known as kauri dieback, is a pathogen found in soil which inhibits the native kauri tree (Agathis australis) from up taking water and nutrients, slowly starving and killing the infected tree. So far kauri dieback has only been found infecting trees in Northland, Great Barrier Island and the Coromandel. == References ==