Although it regularly consulted with Canada, Britain was essentially in charge of both countries' war plans during the first nine months of the war. Neither nation seriously planned for Canada's own defence; Canada's training, production, and equipment emphasized combat in Europe. Its primary role was to supply food, raw materials, and to train pilots from throughout the Empire with the
British Commonwealth Air Training Plan the British proposed on 26 September 1939, not send hundreds of thousands of troops overseas as it had done in World War I. (BCAT) facility in
Uplands, Ontario. More than half of BCAT graduates were Canadian. It is possible that Britain did not want Canada to send troops overseas at all. The Canadian government agreed, because doing so might result in the need for conscription, and it did not want a recurrence of the problem with French Canadians that caused the 1917 crisis. Public opinion did cause King to send the 1st Canadian Infantry Division in late 1939, possibly against British wishes, but it is possible that had the air training proposal arrived ten days earlier no Canadian troops would have left North America that year. Canada fully cooperated with Britain otherwise, devoting 90% of the manpower of the small
Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) to the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan; a force that had trained 125 pilots annually when the war began now produced 1,460 airmen every four weeks under the plan, the largest air force training program in history. 131,553 air force personnel, including 49,808 pilots, were trained at airbases in Canada from October 1940 to March 1945. More than half of the BCAT graduates were Canadians who went on to serve with the RCAF and
Royal Air Force (RAF). One out of the six
RAF Bomber Command groups flying in Europe was Canadian. In 1937 the two nations had agreed that any Canadian military equipment manufactured in Canada would use British designs. While this reasonably assumed that its troops would presumably always fight with Britain so the two forces should share equipment, it also resulted in Canada being dependent on components from a source across the Atlantic. Canadian manufacturing methods and tooling used American, not British designs, so implementing the plan would have meant complete changes to Canadian factories. Once war began, however, British companies refused Canadians their designs and Britain was uninterested in Canadian military equipment production. (When Canada suggested in early 1940 that its factories could replace British equipment given to the 1st Canadian Division, Britain replied that Canada might provide regimental badges.) While Britain gave Canada priority over the United States for purchases, Canada had very little military production capacity in 1939 and Britain had a shortage of Canadian dollars. As late as 12 June 1940, King's government and the Canadian Manufacturers' Association asked the British and French governments to end their "small experimental orders" and "make known at the earliest moment their pressing needs of munitions and supplies" since "Canadian plants might be utilized to a far greater extent as a source of supply." in
Sorel, 1940. This situation began to change on 24 May 1940, during the Battle for France, when Britain told Canada that it could no longer provide equipment. 48 hours later, Britain asked Canada for equipment. On 28 May, seven Canadian destroyers sailed to the
English Channel and left only two French submarines to defend the nation's Atlantic coast. Canada also sent 50 to 60 million rounds of small arms ammunition and 75,000
Ross rifles, leaving itself with a shortage. The air training plan's first graduates were intended to become instructors for future students, but they were sent to Europe immediately because of the danger to Britain. The end of British equipment deliveries threatened the training plan, and King had to ask US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt for aircraft and engines by stating that they would help defend North America. As the fall of France grew imminent Britain looked to Canada to provide additional troops to strategic locations in North America rapidly, the Atlantic and Caribbean. In addition to the Canadian destroyer already on station from 1939, Canada provided troops from May 1940 to assist in the defence of the West Indies with several companies serving throughout the war in Bermuda, Jamaica, the Bahamas and British Guiana. Canadian forces played a small role during the Battle of France, with the 1st Canadian Infantry Brigade being deployed to
Brest as a part of the
second British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The brigade advanced towards
Le Mans on 14 June before they withdrew to the United Kingdom from Brest, and
Saint-Malo on 18 June.
Defence of the United Kingdom in the UK, October 1940. The squadron was deployed to the UK in June 1940, shortly before the
Battle of Britain. From France's collapse in June 1940 to the
German invasion of the USSR in June 1941, Canada supplied Britain with urgently needed food, weapons, and war materials by naval convoys and
airlifts, as well as pilots and planes who fought in the Battle of Britain and the Blitz. During the Battle of Britain between 88 and 112 Canadian pilots served in the RAF, most having come to Britain on their own initiative. For political necessity an "all Canadian" squadron,
No. 242 Squadron RAF, was formed under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan at the start of the war and the squadron served in the Battle of France. They were later joined by
No. 1 Squadron RCAF in June 1940 during the Battle for Britain and they were in "the thick" of fighting in August. By the end of the battle in October 1940, 23 Canadian pilots had been killed. Squadrons of the RCAF and individual Canadian pilots flying with the British RAF fought with distinction in
Spitfire and
Hurricane fighters during the Battle of Britain. By 1 January 1943, there were enough RCAF bombers and crews in Britain to form
No. 6 Group, one of eight bomber groups within RAF Bomber Command. If the planned German
invasion of Britain had taken place in 1941, units of the formation later known as
I Canadian Corps were already deployed between the English Channel and London to meet them. , Iceland. Canada occupied Iceland following the British
invasion of Iceland. in June 1940. After France's surrender Britain told Canada that a German invasion of North America was not impossible, and that Canadians needed to plan accordingly. From June 1940 Canada viewed defending itself as important as aiding Britain, perhaps slightly more so. Canadian troops were sent to the defence of the
Dominion of Newfoundland, on Canada's east coast, the closest point in North America to Germany. Fearing the loss of a land link to the British Isles, Canada was requested to also occupy Iceland, which it did from June 1940 to the spring of 1941, following the initial British invasion. Canada also produced military equipment using American methods and tooling. Cost was no longer an issue; on 24 June King's government presented the first $1 billion budget in Canadian history. It included $700 million in war expenses compared to $126 million in the 1939–1940 fiscal year; however the war caused the overall economy to be the strongest in Canadian history. With opposition support, the
National Resources Mobilization Act initiated nationwide conscription across Canada. Hoping to avoid the issue that sparked the 1917 crisis, conscripted Canadians could not be sent to fight overseas unless they volunteered. Nonetheless, many remained adamantly opposed to any form of conscription; when Mayor of Montreal
Camilien Houde spoke out against the draft in August 1940, he was arrested and sent to an
internment camp. The United States government also feared the consequences to North America of a German victory in Europe. Because of the
Monroe Doctrine the American military had long considered any foreign attack on Canada as the same as attacking the United States.
American isolationists who criticized Roosevelt administration aid to Europe could not criticize helping Canada, which a survey of Americans in the summer of 1940 found that 81 per cent supported defending. The isolationist
Chicago Tribune advocating a military alliance on 19 June surprised and pleased Canada. Through King, the United States asked the United Kingdom to disperse the
Royal Navy around the Empire so that the Germans could not control it. On 16 August 1940, King met with Roosevelt at the border town of
Ogdensburg, New York. Through the
Ogdensburg Agreement, they agreed to create the
Permanent Joint Board on Defence, an organization that would plan joint defence of both countries and would continue to exist after the war. In the fall of 1940 a British defeat seemed so likely the joint board agreed to give the United States command of the Canadian military if Germany won in Europe. By the spring of 1941, as the military situation improved, Canada refused to accept American control of its forces if and when the United States entered the war.
Newfoundland Douglas B-18 Bolo out of
Newfoundland waters, 1940. Newfoundland was occupied by Canadian forces during the war. When war was declared, Britain expected Canada to take responsibility for defending British North America. In 1939,
L. E. Emerson was the Commissioner of Defence for
Newfoundland.
Winston Churchill instructed Emerson to cooperate with Canada and comply with a "friendly invasion," as he encouraged
Mackenzie King to advise the occupation of Newfoundland by the king as
monarch of Canada. By March 1942, Commissioner Emerson had restructured official organizations, such as
The Aircraft Detection Corps Newfoundland, and integrated them into Canadian units, like The Canadian
Aircraft Identity Corps. Several Canadian regiments were garrisoned in Newfoundland during the Second World War: the most famous regiment was
The Royal Rifles of Canada who were stationed at Cape Spear before being dispatched to British Hong Kong; In July 1941,
The Prince Edward Island Highlanders arrived to replace them; In 1941 and 1942,
The Lincoln & Welland Regiment was assigned to
Gander Airport and then
St. John's. , serving in
North Africa, and Europe. The Canadian Army built a concrete fort at
Cape Spear with several large guns to deter German naval raids. Other forts were built overlooking St. John's Harbour; magazines and bunkers were cut into the South Side Hills and torpedo nets were draped across the harbour mouth. Cannons were erected at
Bell Island to protect the merchant navy from submarine attacks and guns were mounted at Rigolette to protect Goose Bay. The British Army mustered two units in Newfoundland for overseas service: The 59th Field Artillery and the 166th Field Artillery. The 59th served in northern Europe, the 166th served in Italy and North Africa. The
Royal Newfoundland Regiment was also mustered, but was never deployed overseas. No. 125 (Newfoundland) Squadron R.A.F. served in England and Wales and provided support during
D-Day: the squadron was disbanded on 20 November 1945. Also, Newfoundland sent over three thousand skilled foresters to Scotland in the form of the
Newfoundland Overseas Forestry Unit. The NOFU helped the war effort by supplying timber to meet the increasing demands. All Canadian soldiers assigned to Newfoundland from 1939 to 1945 received a silver clasp to their
Canadian Volunteer Service Medal for overseas service. Because Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia had all issued their own volunteer service medals, the Newfoundland government minted its own volunteer service medal in 1978. The
Newfoundland Volunteer War Service Medal was awarded only to Newfoundlanders who served overseas in the
Commonwealth Forces but had not received a volunteer service medal. The medal is bronze: on its obverse is a crown and a caribou; on its reverse is
Britannia and two lions.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon After the fall of France, the French
overseas collectivity of
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, located off the coast of Newfoundland, pledged allegiance to
Vichy France. The Canadian government considered the possibility that the Axis might use Saint Pierre and Miquelon as a base of operations. The colony's proximity to Canada and Newfoundland could offer German submariners an excellent position to re-supply and coordinate attacks upon Allied convoys. This was helped by the fact that the islands could communicate with the French mainland through wireless communication and transatlantic cables. The governments of Newfoundland and the UK considered an invasion of the islands in consultation with Canada. However, Canada's War Cabinet refused to initiate an action for fear of offending the US. A
Free French flotilla landed 230 sailors on the islands on 24 December 1941. Saint Pierre and Miquelon administrator Gilbert de Bournat offered no resistance. A plebiscite on the island later voted overwhelmingly to endorse the Free French administration.
Battle of Hong Kong , 1941 In Autumn 1941, the British government accepted an offer by the Canadian Government to send two infantry battalions and a brigade headquarters (1,975 personnel) to reinforce British, Indian, and Hong Kong personnel garrisoned at
Hong Kong. It was known as "
C Force" and arrived in Hong Kong in mid-November 1941, but did not have all of its equipment. They were initially positioned on the south side of the Island to counter any amphibious landing. On 8 December, following the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese began their attack on Hong Kong with a force 4 times bigger than the Allied garrison. Canadian soldiers were called upon to counterattack, and saw their first combat on 11 December. After bitter fighting, allied forces surrendered on 25 December 1941. "C Force" lost 290 personnel during the battle and a further 267 subsequently perished in Japanese prisoner of war camps.
Dieppe Raid after the
failed raid against the port, August 1942 There was pressure from the Canadian government to ensure that Canadian troops were put into action. The
Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942, landed nearly 5,000 soldiers of the inexperienced
Second Canadian Division and 1,000 British commandos on the coast of occupied France, in the only major combined forces assault on France prior to the
Normandy invasion. While a large number of aircraft flew in support, naval gunfire was deliberately limited to avoid damage to the town and civilian casualties. As a result, the Canadian forces assaulted a heavily defended coast line with no supportive bombardment. Of the 6,086 men who made it ashore, 3,367 (60% of the Canadian force) were killed, wounded, or captured. The
Royal Air Force failed to lure the
Luftwaffe into open battle, and lost 106 aircraft (at least 32 to flak or accidents), compared to 48 lost by the
Luftwaffe. The Royal Navy lost 33 landing craft and one destroyer. Two Canadians received the
Victoria Cross for actions at Dieppe: Lieutenant-Colonel
Charles Merritt of the
South Saskatchewan Regiment and Honorary Captain
John Foote, military chaplain of the
Royal Hamilton Light Infantry. The lessons learned at Dieppe became the textbook of "what not to do" in amphibious operations, and laid the framework for the later (
Operation Torch) landings in North Africa and the
Normandy landings in France. Most notably, Dieppe highlighted: • the need for preliminary artillery support, including aerial bombardment; • the need for a sustained element of surprise; • the need for proper intelligence concerning enemy fortifications; • the avoidance of a direct frontal attack on a defended port city; and, • the need for proper re-embarkation craft. after the Dieppe Raid. The raid led to the development of specialized armoured vehicles for later Allied landings. The British developed a range of specialist armoured vehicles which allowed their engineers to perform many of their tasks protected by armour, most famously
Hobart's Funnies. The major deficiencies in RAF ground support techniques led to the creation of a fully integrated Tactical Air Force to support major ground offensives. Because the treads of most Churchill tanks were caught up in the shingle beaches of Dieppe, the Allies initiated pre-operation environmental intelligence collection, and devised appropriate vehicles to meet the challenges of future landing sites. The raid also challenged the Allies' belief that the seizure of a major port would be essential in the creation of a second front. Their revised view was that the amount of damage sustained by bombardment in order to capture a port, would almost certainly render it useless. As a result, the decision was taken to construct prefabricated
"Mulberry" harbours, and tow them to beaches as part of a large-scale invasion.
Aleutian Islands campaign Shortly after the attack of Pearl Harbor, and the American entry into the war, Japanese troops invaded the
Aleutian Islands. RCAF planes flew anti-submarine patrols against the Japanese while on land, Canadian troops were deployed side by side with American troops against the Japanese. Owing to circumstances, Canadians troops were only once sent into combat during the Aleutian campaign during the invasion of the island of
Kiska. However, the Japanese had already withdrawn their forces at that point. ==European theatre (1943–45)==