Early military dictatorships of the rulers of the
Tokugawa shogunate (
Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, 19th century)|alt=An artwork details several leaders in traditional Japanese uniforms The rule of
warlords that seized power over the
central government in ancient China have been compared to modern military dictatorships. These include
Dong Zhuo in the 2nd century and
Cao Cao in the 3rd century.
Korea underwent military rule in the
post-classical era. The
Goguryeo kingdom fell under the control of military leader
Yŏn Kaesomun in 642. Yeon took absolute power after having the monarch killed and having another member of the royal family placed on the throne as a
figurehead. Another military autocracy developed in Korea in 1170 when the military officers of the
Goryeo dynasty revolted against the expansion of
civil service at the expense of the military. The monarch was again replaced with a relative to serve as a figurehead, and a series of military officers ruled over the
Goryeo military regime as they sought to undermine and seize power from one another. Power was consolidated by
Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn through a coup in 1196, and his descendants ruled until 1258. Japan was ruled by a series of military rulers called
shoguns, beginning with the formation of the
Kamakura shogunate in 1185. While shoguns nominally operated under the
Emperor of Japan, they served as
de facto rulers of Japan and the Japanese military. Japan was ruled by shoguns until the
Meiji Restoration that brought about the fall of the
Tokugawa shogunate in 1868. During the
Lê dynasty of Vietnam between the 16th and 18th centuries, the country was under
de facto military rule by two rival military families, the
Trịnh lords in the north and the
Nguyễn lords in the south, in a form of government that resembled military dictatorship. The
Commonwealth of England under
Oliver Cromwell has been described as a military dictatorship by its contemporary opponents and by some modern academics. This government was formed by Cromwell while he was a general in 1649, and his rule was effectively maintained by the military until the
Humble Petition and Advice recognized him as a constitutional ruler in 1657. The direct influence held by the military varied throughout Cromwell's rule.
19th century and World Wars (Helen Bramwell Norris, )|alt=A painting of Juan Manuel de Rosas from the waist up
Latin America was the only region of the world where military dictatorships were common in the 19th century. The
Spanish American wars of independence took place in the early-19th century, creating new Latin American governments. Many of these governments fell under the control of
caudillos, or personalist dictators. Most
caudillos came from a military background, and their rule was typically associated with pageantry and glamor. Most
caudillos were nominally constrained by a constitution but had the power to draft a new constitution as they wished. Dictatorships in Latin America persisted into the 20th century, and further military coups established new regimes, often in the name of
nationalism. By the 1930s, several Latin American militaries had modernized and integrated themselves into civil society.
Several military dictatorships developed in
Eastern Europe after
World War I. The rule of
Józef Piłsudski in
Poland developed in the style of a Latin American dictatorship with
a violent military coup, but it became significantly more militant than other military dictatorships due to the perceived threat from the surrounding
great powers. Romania became a military dictatorship when power was willingly transferred to the military by
Carol II of Romania, establishing
Ion Antonescu as a dictator styled as a "
Conducător". Spain became a military dictatorship in 1923. Portugal became a military dictatorship in 1926, lasting until it was replaced by the personalist rule of
Antonio Salazar in 1932. Japan gradually moved toward military rule in the 1930s and 1940s, taking the form of a junta as military officers gained influence amid
rising militarism. This period in Japanese history saw power struggles between civilian and military officials, culminating in the appointment of General
Hideki Tojo as prime minister in 1941.
Postwar military dictatorships Widespread attention to military dictatorship as a form of government developed in the 1960s as militaries seized power in several countries, particularly in South America. Early study focused extensively on what caused military dictatorships. The
Cold War caused a surge in military dictatorships, as both the
Western Bloc and the
Eastern Bloc tolerated military regimes that promised stability, and both supported regime change against those that did not. A global reversal of military dictatorships began in the 1970s and 1980s when militaries increasingly gave up power in favor of civilian rule. The system of tolerating military dictatorship ended following the fall of the Eastern Bloc at the end of the Cold War, and the Western Bloc had wider latitude to challenge
authoritarianism in military regimes. Since then, the global community has taken a stronger stance against military dictatorships and other forms of undemocratic government. Military coups are virtually nonexistent outside of Africa in the 21st century, with
Myanmar being the only exception between 2017 and 2022.
Africa military dictator
Mengistu Haile Mariam. Mengistu ruled Ethiopia from 1977 to
1991 and carried out extremely brutal repressions of dissent, such as so-called
Qey Shibir. Military dictatorships were one of the two regime types that became common in Africa after
decolonization in the 1960s through the 1980s, alongside
one-party states. At the time of decolonization, no meaningful institutions or national identity existed to maintain democracy or economic growth. Due to the
colonial history of African nations and the higher frequency of civil conflict rather than external conflict, militaries in
sub-Saharan Africa struggled to develop as institutions, allowing military strongmen to consolidate power more easily. Military oppression had been a common occurrence under
colonial rule, and military institutions in Africa were already predisposed to internal control. Several African military dictators, such as
Hamani Diori of
Niger,
Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the
Central African Republic, and
Idi Amin of
Uganda, were at one point involved with colonial militaries. Ethnic conflict has also prompted military officers to carry out regime change, particularly among post-colonial nations where the military and the civilian government had different ethnic makeups. Between 1959 and 2001, 14 African countries experienced at least three successful military coups. Nigeria was particularly affected, with six military dictators between two separate regimes. The
military dictatorship in Nigeria was one of the most prominent in Africa, forming shortly after independence and persisting for most of the century thereafter. By 1975, half of African countries were subject to military rule. Many African militaries traditionally saw themselves as guardians that oversaw the nation, intervening when civilian government exerted authority over the military. Other military dictatorships in Africa sought power simply to provide advantages for its members and its political interests. African military dictators often seized power citing a failure of civilian government, banning all political activity and suspending the constitution. In many cases, former military dictators in Africa later sought election as civilian rulers. Several African military dictators nominally adopted
socialist messaging to gain support from neighboring one-party socialist dictatorships. Public rejection of military dictatorship in Africa significantly increased in the 1980s as pro-democracy protests took place across the continent. Democratization of military dictatorships became more common by 1995, when approximately half of the countries in Africa were democracies. Several of the surviving military dictatorships in Africa also enacted measures to increase citizen participation in local governance. Instances of military dictatorships challenging democracy continued, however, with several military governments cancelling elections and overthrowing democratic governments in the 1990s. As of 2023, Africa is the only continent that sees regular military coups.
Arab world seized power in Syria after purging rival officers during a
military coup in 1970. In the Arab world, several countries, including
Iraq,
Syria, and
Yemen, experienced numerous military coups during 1950s and 1960s. In Syria, the
1963 coup by the
Ba'athist military committee was followed by a series of coups and counter-coup attempts by rival
Ba'athist factions. The intra-Ba'athist power struggle persisted until the
1970 coup, when General
Hafez al-Assad gained undisputed control of the
Syrian military and the
Arab Socialist Ba'ath party. Subsequently, he consolidated power by constructing a
surveillance state characterized by
intense militarism. A similar military dictatorship was also established in
Libya under
Muammar Gaddafi's rule during the 1970s. Military coups have since been infrequent in the Arab world with the exception of Iraq. Following the 1990
Yemeni unification, the Yemen again divided between supporters of military rule and
a one-party secessionist state until the military-ruled
Yemen Arab Republic seized control of the entire nation in the
Yemeni Civil War of 1994. Military coups have since been infrequent in the Middle East with the exceptions of Iraq and
Turkey. In the 21st century,
Egypt was placed under temporary military dictatorship following the
2011 Egyptian revolution and again after the
2013 Egyptian coup d'état.
Sudan shifted from a personalist dictatorship to a military dictatorship following the
2019 Sudanese coup d'état.
East and Southeast Asia as President of Indonesia, marking the start of his 31-year military-backed dictatorship, which was notorious for authoritarian rule, widespread corruption, and human rights abuses
South Korea became a military dictatorship after the
May 16 coup in 1961, following years of military buildup and political involvement. The military organized the
Democratic Republican Party to hold political power after nominally returning to civilian government in 1963. A series of military dictators ruled until democratization in 1987, though the military remained influential in politics thereafter.
Indonesia underwent a long military dictatorship under the
New Order of
Suharto from 1966 to 1998. This dictatorship introduced some liberal reforms and saw relative stability until
unrest caused by the
1997 Asian financial crisis. Myanmar has become an exception among military dictatorships for its long military rule, and it has been recognized as "the most durable military regime worldwide". The military first seized power from 1958 to 1960 and again
from 1962 to 2011, then maintaining indirect rule before seizing control a
third time in 2021. Neighboring
Thailand has seen a similar trend, where the military has ruled directly or indirectly for most years since 1932, with only four civilian governments being formed between 1932 and 2011.
Europe declaring a martial law on 13 December 1981 In 1967, the
military of Greece seized power with the stated intention of ending corruption and
demagoguery. The
Greek junta ruled until 1974, at which point a political crisis prompted by the
Cyprus problem convinced the military to return power to the previous civilian government. In 1981, General
Wojciech Jaruzelski of Poland became first secretary of the
Polish United Workers' Party, the ruling party of Poland's one-party dictatorship. Two months later, he proclaimed
martial law, putting the country under military rule and replacing a one-party dictatorship with a military dictatorship. Martial law ended in 1983, but Jaruzelski retained political power.
Latin America Military dictatorship surged in Latin America during the 1960s, with unstable economic conditions allowing military juntas to take power. Between 1967 and 1991, 12 Latin American countries underwent at least one military coup, with
Haiti and
Honduras experiencing three and
Bolivia experiencing eight. A large wave of military dictatorships occurred in the 1970s, and most of Latin America was under the rule of military dictatorships by the middle of the decade.
Foreign aid to support Latin American militaries was one factor that allowed further military coups, and the
political polarization of the Cold War played a role in creating the political instability that incentivized military rule.
Argentina was particularly susceptible to military dictatorship during the Cold War, with ten separate military dictators ruling across four different regimes between 1943 and 1983.
Brazil and
Guatemala also saw five and six separate military dictators, respectively. The
military dictatorship in Brazil was unique both in that it lasted nearly 20 years and that it allowed elections with competing political parties. El Salvador
became a dictatorship in 1931, becoming a rare example of a partisan military dictatorship. The country was ruled by the military-run
National Pro Patria Party from 1933 to 1944, the
Revolutionary Party of Democratic Unification from 1950 to 1960, and the
National Conciliation Party from 1962 to 1979. .
Reactionary military dictatorships were common in Latin America during the Cold War. These were regimes in which dictators maintained support among the
middle class and
upper class by implementing economic reforms and strengthening the dictatorship's stance in
international economics. This included nations such as
Chile under
Augusto Pinochet. 17 of 20 countries in Latin America experienced reactionary military dictatorship at some point between
World War II and the
end of the Cold War. Some
reformist military dictatorships also existed at this time, maintaining popular support by appealing to
labor groups and the
working class. Foreign pressure, particularly from the
Carter administration in the United States, prompted the end of several military dictatorships in the region in the late 1970s. Several Latin American countries began to democratize by the early-1980s, and the number of coups declined as well. Military dictatorship had virtually disappeared in Latin America by the end of the Cold War. The Argentine
Carapintadas were unable to seize power in 1990 because there was strong public opposition to military rule. By the time of the
2009 Honduran coup, such events were considered unusual in the region. ==See also==