Although the so-called "Modernist Crisis" is usually dated between 1893 (the publication date of
Pope Leo XIII's encyclical ) and 1914 (the death of
Pope Pius X), the controversy had, and continues to have, both a pre-history and a post-history.
Pre-history: Liberal Catholicism in the 19th century With notable exceptions like
Richard Simon or the
Bollandists, Catholic studies in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries had tended to avoid the use of
critical methodology because of its rationalist tendencies. Frequent political revolutions, the bitter opposition of "liberalism" to the Church and the expulsion of religious orders from France and Germany had made the church understandably suspicious of the new intellectual currents. Following the
French Revolution and the subsequent coming to power of the
Conservative Order, the
Magisterium had enacted harsh condemnations against
liberalism,
rationalism,
pantheism,
panentheism,
deism,
indifferentism,
socialism,
communism and other popular philosophies. Non-Catholic Bible translations and interpretations had been met with similar scorn. In 1863,
Ernest Renan published (Life of Jesus). Renan had trained for the priesthood before choosing a secular career as a philologist and historian. His book described Jesus as – a man, no doubt extraordinary, but only a man. The book was very popular, but cost him his chair of
Hebrew at the
Collège de France. Among Renan's most controversial ideas was that "a miracle does not count as a historical event; people believing in a miracle does." Renan's Jesus is a man of simple piety and almost unimaginable charisma whose main historical significance was his legion of followers. In the same year, Church historian
Ignaz von Döllinger invited about 100 German theologians to meet in
Munich (, 1863) to discuss the state of Catholic theology. In his address, "On the Past and Future of Catholic Theology", Döllinger advocated greater academic freedom of theology within the Church, formulating a critique of
neo-scholastic theology and championing the historical method in theology. Döllinger's friend
Charles de Montalembert gave two powerful speeches at the Catholic Congress in
Malines that year too, insisting that the church had to reconcile itself with civil equality and
religious freedom. On 8 December 1864
Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical , decrying what he considered significant errors afflicting the modern age. It condemned certain propositions such as: "the people's will, manifested by what is called public opinion[...] constitutes a supreme law, free from all divine and human control"; on civil law alone depend all rights of parents over their children, and especially that of providing for education; and that
religious orders have no legitimate reason for being permitted. Some of these condemnations were aimed at anticlerical governments in various European countries, which were in the process of secularizing education and taking over
Catholic schools, as well as suppressing religious orders and confiscating their property. Attached to the encyclical was a , which had been condemned in previous papal documents, requiring recourse to the original statements to be understood. The
Syllabus reacted not only to modern atheism, materialism, and agnosticism, but also to Liberal Catholicism and the new critical study of the Bible. It was also a direct reaction to Döllinger's speech in Munich and Montalembert's speeches in Malines. Among the propositions condemned in the
Syllabus were: • "7. The prophecies and miracles set forth and recorded in the Sacred Scriptures are the fiction of poets, and the mysteries of the Christian faith the result of philosophical investigations. In the books of the Old and the New Testament there are contained mythical inventions, and Jesus Christ is Himself a myth." • "13. The method and principles by which the old scholastic doctors cultivated theology are no longer suitable to the demands of our times and to the progress of the sciences." – Letter to the Archbishop of Munich, , December 21, 1863. • "15. Every man is free to embrace and profess the Religion he shall believe true, guided by the light of reason." – Apostolic Letter, , 10 June 1851. Allocution , 9 June 1862. The
First Vatican Council was held from December 1869 to October 1870. The council provoked a degree of controversy even before it met. In anticipation that the subject of papal infallibility would be discussed, many bishops, especially in France and Germany, expressed the opinion that the time was "inopportune".
Ignaz von Döllinger led a movement in Germany hostile to the definition of infallibility. In Döllinger's view, there was no foundation for this definition in Catholic tradition. After the definition, Döllinger was excommunicated by the
Archbishop of Munich Gregor von Scherr in 1871. Montalembert died before the end of the council. The dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith, , tried to steer a middle way between
rationalism and
fideism. It presented a concept of
revelation which highlighted the aspect of divine instruction by revelation. The dogmatic Constitution addressed the primacy of the pope and rejected the idea that decrees issued by the pope for the guidance of the church are not valid unless confirmed by the secular power. It also declared
papal infallibility when speaking
ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals. Other matters were deferred when
the Italian infantry entered Rome and the council was prorogued. The Council remained formally open until 1960, when it was officially closed by
Pope John XXIII, in order to convene the
Second Vatican Council. The First Vatican Council's decisions were so controversial that they even caused a schism of some German, Swiss, Austrian and Dutch liberal Catholics, who broke away from the Vatican and merged with the
Jansenists, who had maintained a somewhat precarious hierarchy in the Netherlands, into the
Old Catholic Church, which exists to this day.
The beginning of the modernist controversy under Leo XIII Pope Leo XIII, Pius IX's successor, wanted to advance
what he understood as the true Christian science in every way: he worked for a revival of
Thomism as Christian philosophy, he encouraged the study of history and archaeology, and in 1881 he opened up the Vatican Archives for researchers. In 1887 he encouraged the study of the natural sciences, and in 1891 opened a new
Vatican Observatory. Leo's response to the rationalist trend to undermine the authority of sacred scripture was for the Church to have its own trained experts. In 1893, with , Pope Leo gave the first formal authorization for the use of critical methods in biblical scholarship. “Hence it is most proper that Professors of Sacred Scripture and theologians should master those tongues in which the sacred Books were originally written, and have a knowledge of natural science.” He recommended that the student of scripture be first given a sound grounding in the interpretations of the
Fathers such as
Tertullian,
Cyprian,
Hilary,
Ambrose,
Leo the Great,
Gregory the Great,
Augustine and
Jerome, and understand what they interpreted literally, and what allegorically; and note what they lay down as belonging to faith and what is opinion. Although tried to encourage Catholic biblical studies, it also created problems. In the encyclical, Leo XIII excluded the possibility of restricting the
inspiration and inerrancy of the bible to matters of faith and morals. Thus, he interfered in the lively discussion about biblical inspiration in France, where
Maurice d'Hulst, founder of the
Institut Catholique de Paris, had opted for a more open solution in his article on . Not only exegetes of this
école large were now in trouble, but also the prominent French theologian
Alfred Loisy who worked for a thoroughly historical understanding of the Bible, in order to open up spaces for theological reform. The Roman Congregation of the Index began to prepare a censuring of Loisy's main works, but until the death of Leo XIII in 1903 no decision was taken, as there was also considerable resistance within the
Roman Curia against a premature judgment on matters of biblical interpretation. On the whole, official Catholic attitudes to the study of Scripture at the turn of the 20th century were of cautious advance, and a growing appreciation of what had promise for the future. In 1902, Pope Leo XIII instituted the
Pontifical Biblical Commission, which was to adapt Catholic Biblical studies to modern scholarship and to protect Scripture against attacks.
Marie-Joseph Lagrange In 1890 the
École Biblique, the first Catholic school specifically dedicated to the critical study of the bible, was established in
Jerusalem by Dominican
Marie-Joseph Lagrange. In 1892
Pope Leo XIII gave his official approval. While many of Lagrange's contemporaries criticized the new scientific and critical approach to the Bible, he made use of it. Lagrange founded the , and his first articles drew sharp criticism, but Pope Leo was not inclined to discourage new ideas. As long as Pope Leo lived, Lagrange's work quietly progressed, but after Leo's death, an ultra-conservative reaction set in. In 1912 Lagrange was given an order for the to cease publication and to return to France. The École itself was closed for a year, and then Lagrange was sent back to Jerusalem to continue his work.
Duchesne and Loisy Louis Duchesne was a French priest, philologist, teacher, and amateur archaeologist. Trained at the
École pratique des Hautes Études in Paris, he applied modern methods to church history, drawing together archaeology and topography to supplement literature and setting ecclesiastical events within the contexts of social history. Duchesne held the chair of ecclesiastical history at the
Institut Catholique de Paris, and was frequently in contact with like-minded historians among the
Bollandists, with their long history of critical editions of
hagiographies. Duchesne gained fame as a demythologizing critical historian of the popular, pious lives of saints produced by
Second Empire publishers. However, his , 1906–1911 (translated as
Early History of the Christian Church) was considered too modernist by the church at the time, and was placed on the
Index of Forbidden Books in 1912.
Alfred Loisy was a French Catholic priest, professor and theologian generally credited as the "father of Catholic Modernism". He had studied at the Institut Catholique under Duchesne and attended the course on Hebrew by
Ernest Renan at the
Collège de France. Harvey Hill says that the development of Loisy's theories have to be seen also in the context of France's Church-State conflict, which contributed to Loisy's crisis of faith in the 1880s. In November 1893, Loisy published the last lecture of his course, in which he summed up his position on
biblical criticism in five propositions: the
Pentateuch was not the work of
Moses, the first five chapters of
Genesis were not literal history, the
New Testament and the
Old Testament did not possess equal historical value, there was a development in scriptural doctrine, and Biblical writings were subject to the same limitations as those by other authors of the ancient world. When his attempts at theological reform had failed, Loisy came to regard the Christian religion more as a system of humanistic ethics than as divine revelation. He was excommunicated in 1908.
The climax of the controversy under Pius X Pope Pius X, who succeeded Leo XIII in August 1903, engaged almost immediately in the ongoing controversy. Reacting on pressure from the Parisian Archbishop Cardinal
François-Marie-Benjamin Richard, he transferred the censuring of Loisy from the
Congregation of the Index to the
Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. Already in December 1903, Loisy's main exegetical works were censured. At the same time the Holy Office began to prepare a syllabus of errors contained in the works of Loisy. Due to ongoing internal resistance, especially from the
Master of the Sacred Palace, the papal theologian Alberto Lepidi , this Syllabus was published only in July 1907 as the decree , which condemned sixty-five propositions from the field of biblical interpretation and the history of dogma. did not mention the term
modernism, and it seems that Pius X and his close collaborators like Cardinal
Rafael Merry del Val and Cardinal
José de Calasanz Vives y Tutó were not satisfied with the document. Therefore, in the summer of 1907, another document was prepared in a small circle around the Pope and already in September 1907, Pius X promulgated the encyclical , which formulated a synthesis of modernism and popularized the term itself. The encyclical condemned modernism as embracing every
heresy. described the "modernist" in seven "roles": as purely immanentist philosopher, as believer who relies only on their own religious experience, as theologian who understands dogma symbolically, as historian and biblical scholar who dissolves divine revelation by means of the historical-critical method into purely immanent processes of development, as apologete who justifies the Christian truth only from immanence, and as reformer who wants to change the church in a radical way.
Agnosticism,
immanentism,
evolutionism and
reformism are the keywords used by the Pope to describe the philosophical and theological system of modernism. The encyclical describes the modernist as an enemy of scholastic philosophy and theology and resistant to the teachings of the
Magisterium; their moral qualities are curiosity, arrogance, ignorance, and falsehood. Modernists deceive the simple believers by not presenting their entire system, but only parts of it. Therefore, the encyclical wants to reveal the secret system of modernism. contained also disciplinary measures for the promotion of scholastic philosophy and theology in the seminaries, for the removal of suspect professors and candidates for the priesthood, for a more rigid censuring of publications and for the creation of an antimodernist control group in every diocese. All bishops and superiors of religious orders had to report regularly on the execution of these measures. Pius frequently condemned the movement, and was deeply concerned that its adherents could go on believing themselves strict Catholics while understanding dogma in a markedly untraditional sense (a consequence of the notion of evolution of dogma). Therefore, in 1910, he introduced an
anti-modernist oath to be taken by all Catholic priests. To ensure enforcement of these decisions, Monsignor
Umberto Benigni organized, through his personal contacts with theologians and laymen in various European countries, a secret network of informants who would report to him those thought to be teaching condemned doctrine or engaging in political activities (like Christian Democratic Parties, Christian Unions) which were also deemed to be "modernist" because they were not controlled by the Catholic hierarchy. This group was called the , i.e. Fellowship of
Pius (V), with the code name of . Its frequently overzealous and clandestine methods often hindered rather than helped the Church combat modernism. Benigni also published the journal /, which initiated press campaigns against practical and social modernism throughout Europe. Benigni fell out with Cardinal Secretary of State
Rafael Merry del Val in 1911. The was eventually dissolved in 1921. Recent research has stressed the
antisemitic character of Benigni's antimodernism.
In America With his slogan "Church and Age unite!", Archbishop
John Ireland of
Saint Paul, Minnesota, became the hero of reformers in France (
Félix Klein), Italy and Germany (
Herman Schell) in the 1890s. The modernist controversy in the United States was thus initially dominated by the conflict on "
Americanism", which after was also presented as a "forerunner" of modernism in Catholic heresiology. "Americanism" was perceived as an influence of
classical liberalism in the
Catholic Church in the United States, particularly regarding the concept of
separation of Church and State. Such tendencies alarmed Pope Leo XIII, who condemned them, at the urging of Archbishop Ireland's old opponent from
Minnesota Archbishop
John Joseph Frederick Otto Zardetti, in the apostolic letter (1899). Archbishop Ireland had to be extremely careful to avoid condemnation for his views. Following the issuing of , the antimodernist measures were especially felt in the
Archdiocese of New York: The
New York Review was a journal produced by
Saint Joseph's Seminary. It printed papers by leading Catholic Biblical experts who were part of the newly emerging schools of
Biblical criticism, which raised eyebrows in Rome. Around 1908, the
Review was discontinued, ostensibly for financial reasons, although there is strong evidence that it was suppressed for modernist tendencies. Despite his support for modernization, Archbishop Ireland actively campaigned against modernism following the encyclical: this apparently inconsistent behavior stemmed from Ireland's concept of a "golden mean" between "ultraconservatism", rendering the Church irrelevant, and "ultraliberalism," discarding the Church's message. Nevertheless, theological antimodernism continued to influence the climate within the Church. The
Holy Office, until 1930 under the guidance of Cardinal
Rafael Merry del Val, continued to censure modernist theologians and rationalist exegesis was once again condemned by the Pontiff in his encyclical . In the 1930s, Loisy's
opera omnia (“all works”) were placed on the . During
World War I, French propaganda claimed that the
Catholic Church in Germany was infested with modernism. Already in 1913 it had been claimed by the French academic
Edmond Vermeil that the Catholic
Tübingen School in the mid-19th century, with its interest for the "organic development" of the church in history, was a "forerunner" of "modernism" – a claim which has been debated ever since. Between World War I and the Second Vatican Council,
Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange was a "torchbearer of orthodox
Thomism" against modernism. Garrigou-Lagrange, who was a professor of philosophy and theology at the
Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, , is commonly held to have influenced the decision in 1942 to place the privately circulated book (Étiolles-sur-Seine 1937) by
Marie-Dominique Chenu on the Vatican's "Index of Forbidden Books" as the culmination of a polemic within the
Dominican Order between the supporters of a speculative scholasticism and the French revival Thomists who were more attentive to historical hermeneutics, such as
Yves Congar At the beginning of the 1930s, Congar read the of Loisy and realised that modernism had addressed problems in theology which were still not resolved by neo-scholastic theology. Chenu and Congar, two protagonists of the , began to prepare a dossier on this topic. In 1946, Congar wrote to Chenu that neo-scholastic theology had already begun to "liquidate" itself on a daily basis and that the Jesuits were among the fiercest "liquidators". Congar's was also suspected of modernism because its methodology derived more from religious experience than from syllogistic analysis. A first relaxation of the strict anti-modernist measures imposed on biblical scholars by Pius X came in 1943: on that year,
Pope Pius XII issued the encyclical , regulating the issue of Biblical exegesis. The encyclical inaugurated the modern period of Roman Catholic
Biblical studies by encouraging the study of
textual criticism (or 'lower criticism'), pertaining to text of the Scriptures themselves and transmission thereof (for example, to determine correct readings) and permitted the use of the
historical-critical method (or 'higher criticism') to be informed by
theology,
Sacred Tradition, and
ecclesiastical history on the historical circumstances of the text, hypothesizing about matters such as authorship, dating, and similar concerns. Catholic Biblical scholar
Raymond E. Brown described the encyclical as a "
Magna Carta for biblical progress". Despite his cautious openings on the issue of biblical criticism, Pius XII was suspicious of the new theological trends, which he feared could cause a modernist revival: in 1950, he published the encyclical
Humani generis, in which he condemned "certain new intellectual currents" in the Church, accusing them of relativism and attacking them for reformulating dogmas in a way that was not consistent with Church tradition and for following
biblical hermeneutics that deviated from the teachings of
Providentissimus Deus,
Spiritus Paraclitus and
Divino afflante Spiritu. The encyclical specifically accused these new "trends" of having embraced the modernist heresy condemned by Pius X in
Pascendi Dominici gregis. The encyclical did not mention any particular theologian but was widely interpreted as a condemnation of the
Nouvelle théologie and was followed by an anti-modernist purge in
Le Saulchoir and Fourvière. Following the election of
Pope John XXIII and the calling of the
Second Vatican Council, anti-modernist polemics declined and many theologians associated with the
Nouvelle théologie were gradually rehabilitated and many of them took part in the council with the qualification of
peritus. However,
Pope Paul VI once again condemned modernism in his encyclical
Ecclesiam Suam (1964), calling it "an error which is still making its appearance under various new guises, wholly inconsistent with any genuine religious expression" and described it as "an attempt on the part of secular philosophies and secular trends to vitiate the true teaching and discipline of the Church of Christ". Despite this, the Oath Against Modernism was abolished on 17 July 1967 by the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith with the approval of Paul VI. Following the council, the more
conservative supporters of
Nouvelle théologie had important careers in the Church:
Jean Daniélou ,
Yves Congar and
Henri de Lubac were made cardinals by
Pope John Paul II, while Joseph Ratzinger was elected as
Pope Benedict XVI in 2005.
Hans Urs von Balthasar died two days before being created cardinal. The same honours were not granted to the more
liberal members, who were gradually marginalised due to their extreme views:
Hans Küng was stripped from his theological license by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1979 for questioning
papal infallibility, while
Edward Schillebeeckx was repeatedly investigated, but never condemned by the Congregation and even by Pope Paul VI himself (encyclical
Mysterium fidei) due to his heterodox views about
Christology and the
eucharist. References to modernism continue to be frequent among conservative and
traditionalist Catholics. ==Notable persons involved in the Modernist controversy==