The
Tai Phuan or
Phuan people are a
Theravada Buddhist Tai-Lao ethnic group that migrated to the area that is now
Laos during the 13th century. According to legend, the
Phuan people were led by Chet Chuong, the second son of
Khun Borom who founded the city-state of Muang Phuan. In the mid-14th century Muang Phuan was incorporated into the
Lan Xang Kingdom under King
Fa Ngum. Under the
Mandala model, cities or even kingdoms would enter into tributary relationships with their neighbors depending on regional power; in exchange the tribute would maintain local autonomy. It was not uncommon to pay tribute to more than one power even concurrently. In 1434, Muang Phuan entered into a tributary relationship with the
Dai Viet. However, by 1478 the
Dai Viet attempted to annex Muang Phuan as a prefecture, which contributed to war between
Lan Xang and the
Dai Viet. The
Dai Viet army ultimately withdrew during that conflict, and Muang Phuan returned as a tributary to
Lan Xang. However, the peace was short-lived and by 1531 Muang Phuan rebelled against King
Photisarath who put down the rebellion after two years. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, Muang Phuan remained part of
Lan Xang. During the 16th century, expressive Buddhist art and architecture flourished. The capital was dotted with temples in a distinct Xieng Khouang style, i.e., simple low roofs with a characteristic ‘waist’ at the foundation. In 1930, Le Boulanger described it as ‘a large and beautiful city protected by wide moats and forts occupying the surrounding hills and the opulence of the sixty-two pagodas and their stupas, of which the flanks concealed treasures, obtained the capital a fame that spread fear wide and far.” In 1707 when
Lan Xang was divided between the Kingdoms of
Vientiane and
Luang Prabang, Muang Phuan entered into tributary relations with the
Kingdom of Luang Prabang. ,
Khoune District By the 1720s Muang Phuan was supporting the
Kingdom of Luang Prabang in wars against the
Burmese, and
Siamese. Under Chao Kham Sattha again, Muang Phuan went to war against the Governor of
Thakhek, a tributary to the
Kingdom of Vientiane. In 1751 Chao Ong Lo went so far as to directly attack the
Kingdom of Vientiane and was totally defeated, retreating to Houa Phan (today
Sam Neua) where he began to raise another army. The
Kingdom of Vientiane named Chao Ong Lo's brother Ong Bun as regional governor of Muang Phuan. The armies of Muang Phuan split between the brothers in civil war, and ultimately Chao Ong Lo prevailed. However, the conflict drained the region so much so that for the next 37 years Muang Phuan remained a tributary to
Vientiane. In 1779 the
Kingdom of Vientiane was captured by the
Siamese led by General
Taksin, Muang Phuan as a tributary of
Vientiane became a
Siamese vassal state while maintaining tributary relations with
Dai Viet.
Siam was severely depopulated from the history of warfare with the
Burmese in the 18th century, and the destruction of
Ayutthaya in 1767. To exert greater control of the lands and people of Muang Phuan, the
Siamese launched the first of several forced migration campaigns to resettle large parts of the
Phuan population to regions under firm
Siamese control. Chao Somphou, the son of Chao Ong Lo, set about restoring and rebuilding the temples and defenses of Muang Phuan. According to some accounts, his palace grew to rival that of the King of
Vientiane. In 1789 or 1790, King Nanthasen of
Vientiane believed rebellion was possible and sent an army to capture Muang Phuan. Chao Somphou fled to Houaphanh, King Nanthasen continued north to capture
Luang Prabang in 1792. In 1793 Chao Somphou was captured by King Nanthasen and imprisoned in
Vientiane. Muang Phuan appealed to the
Dai Viet, and a combined force of 6,000
Phuan and
Vietnamese crossed into
Xiengkhouang and began to march toward
Vientiane. King Nanthasen, not wanting to create a wider conflict, negotiated an arrangement where Muang Phuan would pay equal tribute to the Kingdoms of
Vientiane and the
Dai Viet in exchange for the release of Chao Somphou. Chao Somphou returned to Muang Phuan where he began another building campaign. By 1800, King Inthavong of
Vientiane feared a resurgence of power in Muang Phuan, and sent his brother Chao
Anouvong to capture Chao Somphou. Chao Somphou died as a prisoner in
Vientiane around 1803. Chao Somphou's nephew
Chao Noy took control of Muang Phuan in 1803. He was an authoritarian ruler who increased taxes to augment his palace and the military. In 1814, he violently suppressed a
Khmu rebellion. In 1823, he was accused by a half-brother of seeking independence, and was summoned to
Vientiane under the guise of answering for his actions during 1814. King Inthavong imprisoned Chao Noy for three years. On the death of his brother King
Anouvong of
Vientiane, allowed Chao Noy to return to Muang Phuan where he sought a tributary relationship with the
Dai Viet Emperor
Minh Mang. Whether
Anouvong's actions were part of a wider plot to rebel against the
Siamese is controversial, what is clear is that ultimately
Anouvong did rebel and sought to draw all the
Lao lands together in opposition to
Siam. The
Lao rebellion of 1826–1828 ultimately failed, and Chao Noy handed over the fleeing King
Anouvong to the
Siamese. As King
Anouvong was also a tributary to the
Dai Viet, Emperor
Minh Mang summoned Chao Noy in 1831 and had him executed for having acted without consultation. In 1832 the
Dai Viet annexed Muang Phuan and named the region
Tran Ninh meaning “To Keep the Peace” and imposed
Vietnamese taxes, culture and dress on the population. Under the guise of protecting the
Tai peoples in Muang Phuan, a
Siamese garrison of 1,000 invaded and killed the
Vietnamese officials. The
Thais then began a second
population transfer, moving several thousand Muang Phuan. Several hundred tried to escape and return to Muang Phuan but were caught by the
Vietnamese and committed suicide. Disease and harsh treatment killed a number of the families that stayed with the
Siamese, and left only around a thousand to be resettled around
Bangkok. In late 1831,
Siam and
Vietnam had a series of wars (
Siamese-Vietnamese War 1831–1834, and
Siamese-Vietnamese War 1841–1845) over control of
Cambodia, and the
Xieng Khouang region came under heavy
Vietnamese presence. During this period, Chao Po (son of Chao Noy) was allowed to return to Muang Phuan. In the 1850s
Siam agitated a rebellion against the
Vietnamese, and Muang Phuan came under
Siamese suzerainty. Beginning in the 1840s the
Chinese sought to expand their military control and tax system over the hill peoples in southern
China.
Lao Sung people including the
Hmong and
Meo began to move into the mountainous uplands of
Xieng khouang. The migration of these first peoples was relatively peaceful, as the peoples preferred to maintain their own communities in the upland territories which were not farmed by the
Lao Theung or
Lao Loum in the area. By the 1860s, the failed
Taiping Rebellion in
China created a flood of new refugees along with marauders organized into gangs identified by the design of their flags including the Red, Yellow,
Black and Striped. The gangs looted, burned, and warred in the areas of northern
Laos and
Xieng Khouang. The capital of Muang Phuan was looted and destroyed repeatedly by warring bands of
Haw or Ho pirates. Due to the instability, the
Siamese conducted a series of military campaigns known as the
Haw Wars in the region. The
Siamese were unsuccessful at restoring order, and used the opportunity for more forced population transfers in 1875–1876. These deportations were recorded by a British observer in 1876. The instability caused by the
Haw engulfed the territories of
Tonkin and
Annam, which were possessed by the
French in the 1880s. The
French were aware that
Siamese control of territory was weak. In 1889,
Auguste Pavie produced letters from King Mantha Tourath of
Luang Prabang seeking vassalage with Emperor
Minh Mang from the period of the 1830s, and presented them to
Bangkok as evidence for the
French right to extend a protectorate to
Xieng Khouang and
Luang Prabang. Under the terms of the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1893, Muang Phuan came under
French colonial protection. In 1899, the Phuan regions lost autonomy and became part of the
French Protectorate of Laos in
French Indochina. ==Monarchs of Muang Phuan==