West Africa Ghana In the 17th century, the area of present-day Ghana was a center for trade and cultural exchange. The states in the region were connected through trading networks and shared cultural beliefs but remained politically independent. This arrangement lasted until the early 18th century when the leader
Osei Tutu initiated a vast land expansion that unified these smaller states. The kingdom's economy, which grew through trade in gold, cloth, and enslaved people, supported the development of its artistic culture. Ghanaian artworks range from wood carvings to brass works, figures, and gems. Kente is a traditional, multi-colored, hand-woven cloth made from silk and cotton. It consists of interwoven cloth strips and is central to Ghanaian culture. It is traditionally worn as a wrap by men and women of various Ghanaian ethnic groups, with variations in style for each. ;Colors and their meanings There are different color variations for Kente, each with a different meaning: • Black: maturation • White: purification • Yellow: preciousness • Blue: peacefulness • Red: bloodshed
Akan art originated among the
Akan people. Akan art includes traditions such as textiles, sculpture, Akan goldweights, and gold and silver
jewelry. Akan art is characterized by a connection between visual and verbal expression and a blending of art and philosophy. Akan culture values
gold above other metals, and it is used to represent supernatural elements, royal authority, and cultural values. According to Asante oral tradition, their origins are linked to the arrival of a golden stool, which is believed to hold the soul of the Asante nation. In some Akan cultural beliefs, gold symbolized the sun and was associated with royal authority. It was often used in art to signify the king's importance, representing key cultural and social values. Kente cloth is another important art tradition of Akan culture. According to oral tradition, Kente cloth originated from attempts to replicate spider webs through weaving. Kente cloth is recognized for its colors and intricate patterns. Its original purpose was to represent royal power and authority, but it has since become a symbol of tradition and has been adopted by other cultures. Máscara de oro - tesoro del rey Kofi Kolkalli.jpg|
Ashanti trophy head; circa 1870; pure
gold;
Wallace Collection (London). This artwork represents an enemy chief killed in battle. Weighing , it was attached to the
Asante king's state sword Brooklyn Museum 1997.101.1 Doll Akuaba.jpg|Doll (Akuaba); 20th century; 27.3 x 11.4 x 3.8 cm (10 x 4 x 1 in.);
Brooklyn Museum (New York City) Ashanti soulwasher by Claire H.jpg|Soul washer badge (Akrafokonmu); 18th-19th century; gold;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) AdinkraCalabashStamps.jpg|Calabash
adinkra stamps carved in
Ntonso (Ghana)
Nigeria Nigerian art is inspired by the country's diverse folklore and traditional heritage. Art forms from Nigeria include stone carvings, pottery, glasswork, woodcarvings, and bronze works. Benin and
Awka are known as centers for wood carving, a craft that has long been practiced throughout southern Nigeria.
Examples of Nigerian Traditional Art Masks Masks are part of the animist beliefs of the
Yoruba people. Painted masks are worn by dancers during funerals and other ceremonies to communicate with or appease spirits.
Pottery Pottery has a long tradition in Nigeria, with evidence of its production dating back to at least 100 B.C. Suleja, Abuja, and Ilorin are considered important centers of traditional pottery. Potters in Nigeria are often women, and the techniques are typically passed down through families.
Textiles The Yoruba use a local plant to create indigo-dyed batik cloth. Women traditionally perform the dyeing, while in the north, the craft is practiced exclusively by men. Weavers in many parts of the country produce textiles with lace-like designs. Oyo state is known for its fine woven textiles, while weavers in Abia state use a broadloom technique. The Nok culture is an early
Iron Age population whose material remains are named after the
Ham village of
Nok in
Kaduna State of
Nigeria, where their famous
terracotta sculptures were first discovered in 1928. The Nok Culture appeared in
northern Nigeria around 1500 BC The function of Nok terracotta sculptures remains unknown. For the most part, the terracotta is preserved in the form of scattered fragments. For this reason, Nok art is best known today for its heads, both male and female, which feature particularly detailed and refined hairstyles. The statues are fragmented because the discoveries are usually made from
alluvial mud, in terrain formed by water erosion. The
terracotta statues recovered from these deposits are typically rolled, polished, and broken. Rarely are works of great size conserved intact, making them highly valued on the international art market. The terracotta figures are hollow, coil-built, nearly life-sized human heads and bodies that are depicted with highly stylized features, abundant
jewelry, and varied postures. Little is known of the original function of the pieces, but theories include ancestor portrayal,
grave markers, and
charms to prevent crop failure, infertility, and illness. Also, based on the dome-shaped bases found on several figures, they could have been used as finials for the roofs of ancient structures. Margaret Young-Sanchez, Associate Curator of Art of the Americas, Africa, and Oceania in
The Cleveland Museum of Art, explains that most Nok ceramics were shaped by hand from coarse-grained clay and subtractively sculpted in a manner that suggests an influence from wood carving. After some drying, the sculptures were covered with slip and burnished to produce a smooth, glossy surface. The figures are hollow, with several openings to facilitate thorough drying and firing. The firing process most likely resembled that used today in Nigeria, in which the pieces are covered with grass, twigs, and leaves and burned for several hours. As a result of natural erosion and deposition, Nok terracottas were scattered at various depths throughout the Sahel grasslands, causing difficulty in the dating and classification of the artifacts. Two archaeological sites,
Samun Dukiya and
Taruga, were found containing Nok art that had remained unmoved.
Radiocarbon and
thermo-luminescence tests narrowed the sculptures’ age down to between 2,000 and 2,500 years ago, making them some of the oldest in Western Africa. Many further dates were retrieved in the course of new archaeological excavations, extending the beginnings of the Nok tradition even further back in time. Because of the similarities between the two sites, archaeologist
Graham Connah believes that "Nok artwork represents a style that was adopted by a range of iron-using farming societies of varying cultures, rather than being the diagnostic feature of a particular human group as has often been claimed." Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|
Nok seated figure; 5th century BC – 5th century AD; terracotta; ;
Musée du quai Branly (Paris). In this Nok work, the head is dramatically larger than the body supporting it, yet the figure possesses elegant details and a powerful focus. The neat protrusion from the chin represents a beard. Necklaces form a cone around the neck and keep the focus on the face. Sculpture de la culture Nok (VIe av JC - VIe ap JC, Musée du Louvre).JPG|Relief fragment with heads and figures; 5th century BC – 5th century AD; length: , height: , width: ; terracotta; Musée du quai Branly. Like most African art styles, the Nok style focuses mainly on people, rarely on animals. All of the Nok statues are stylized and similar in that they have triangular-shaped eyes with perforated pupils, and arched eyebrows. Male Head, Nok culture, Kaduna, Plateau, or Nassarawa state, Nigeria, 550-50 BC, terracotta - Brooklyn Museum - Brooklyn, NY - DSC08511.JPG|Male head; 550–50 BC; terracotta;
Brooklyn Museum (
New York City, USA). The mouth of this head is slightly open. It may suggest speech, that the figure has something to say. This is a figure that seems to be in the midst of a conversation. The eyes and the eyebrows suggest an inner calm or an inner serenity. Nigeria, cultura nok, figura maschile, 5000 ac-200 dc ca.jpg|Male figure; terracotta;
Detroit Institute of Art (
Michigan, USA)
Benin art Benin art is the
art from the
Kingdom of Benin or
Edo Empire (1440–1897), a pre-colonial African state located in what is now the South-South region of Nigeria. The Benin Bronzes are a group of more than a thousand metal plaques and sculptures that decorated the royal palace of the
Kingdom of Benin in what is now Nigeria. Collectively, the objects form the best-known examples of
Benin art, created from the thirteenth century onwards, by the
Edo people. This art also included other sculptures in brass or bronze, including some famous portrait heads and smaller pieces. In 1897, most of the plaques and other objects in the collection were taken by a
British force during the
Benin Expedition of 1897, which took place as British control in
Southern Nigeria was being consolidated. Two hundred of the pieces were taken to the
British Museum, while the rest were purchased by other museums in Europe. Today, a large number are held by the British Museum, Plaque- Warrior and Attendants MET DT1231.jpg|Plaque with warriors and attendants; 16th–17th century; brass; height: 47.6 cm (18 in.);
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Plaque Equestrian Oba and Attendants MET DP295360.jpg|Plaque equestrian an Oba on horseback with attendants; between 1550 and 1680; brass; height: 49.5 cm (19 in.), width: 41.9 (16 in.), diameter: 11.4 cm (4 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art Plaque LACMA M.74.90 (1 of 2).jpg|Plaque that probably represents a musician; 17th century; bronze; 48.26 cm (19 in.) x 18.42 (7 in.) x 8.89 cm (3 in.), irregular;
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA) Rooster Figure MET 50.145.47 a.jpeg|Rooster figure; 18th century; brass; overall: 45.4 cm (17 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 29.JPG|
Bronze Head of Queen Idia; early 16th century; bronze;
Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Germany). Four cast
bronze heads of the queen are known and are currently in the collections of the
British Museum, the
World Museum (
Liverpool), the
Nigerian National Museum (
Lagos) and the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Leopard aquamanile, Nigeria, Benin Kingdom, 17th century AD, brass - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC02208.JPG|Leopard aquamanile; 17th century; brass; Ethnological Museum of Berlin. The bronze leopards were used to decorate the altar of the oba. The leopard, a symbol of power, appears in many bronze plaques, from the oba's palace. Figure of a Horn Blower, Edo people, Benin, Edo state, Nigeria, c. 1504-1550, copper alloy - Brooklyn Museum - Brooklyn, NY - DSC08506.JPG|Figure of a horn blower; 1504–1550; copper alloy; 62.2 x 21.6 x 15.2 cm (24 x 8 x 6 in.);
Brooklyn Museum (New York City). Blowing a horn or flute with his right hand, his left arm is truncated. He also wears a netted cap with chevron design decorated with a feather. Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg|
Benin ivory mask of the
queen mother Idia; 16th century; ivory, iron and copper; Metropolitan Museum of Art. One of four related ivory pendant masks among the prized regalia of the
Oba of Benin; taken during the
Benin Expedition of 1897 in the
Southern Nigeria Protectorate Igbo The
Igbo produce a wide variety of art, including traditional figures, masks, artifacts and textiles, as well as works in metals such as bronze. Ninth-century bronze artifacts found at
Igbo Ukwu are among the earliest known Igbo artworks. Their masks are similar to those of the
Fang people, as they share a combination of white and black colors in roughly the same areas. File:Brooklyn Museum 78.118.6 Maiden Spirit Mask.jpg|Maiden spirit mask; early 20th century; wood & pigment;
Brooklyn Museum (
New York City, USA) File:QueenofWomanMask-BMA.jpg|A mask known as the Queen of Women (
Eze Nwanyi); late 19th-early 20th century; wood & pigment;
Birmingham Museum of Art (
Alabama, USA) File:Bronze ceremonial vessel in form of a snail shell, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria.JPG|Bronze ceremonial vessel in form of a snail shell; 9th century;
Igbo-Ukwu;
Nigerian National Museum (
Lagos, Nigeria) File:Bronze ornamental staff head, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|Bronze ornamental staff head; 9th century;
Igbo-Ukwu; Nigerian National Museum File:Nigeria, igbo, figura femminile per un tempietto, xx secolo.jpg|Female figure for a small temple; 20th century; Indianapolis Museum of Art
Yoruba Yoruba art is best known for the heads from
Ife, made from ceramic, brass, and other materials. Much of their art is associated with the royal courts. They also produced elaborate and detailed masks and doors, painted in bright colors such as blue, yellow, red, and white. Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 02.JPG|Head of a king or dignitary; 12th–15th century AD; terracotta;
Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Germany); discovered at
Ife (Nigeria) Yoruba-bronze-head.jpg|Mask for
Obalufon II; circa 1300 AD; copper; height: 29.2 cm; discovered at
Ife;
Ife Museum of Antiquities (
Ife, Nigeria) Arte yoruba, nigeria, testa da ife, 12-15mo secolo.JPG|
Bronze head from Ife; 12th–15th century;
brass;
British Museum (London) Nigeria, yoruba, corpicapo della società geledè, 1900-15 ca.jpg|Gelede mask; circa 1900–1915;
Detroit Institute of Arts (USA) Pair of door panels and lintel Yoruba BM.jpg|Pair of door panels and a lintel; circa 1910–1914; by
Olowe of Ise; (
British Museum, London)
Other ethnic groups of Nigeria Carved door, probably by Sakiwa, Nupe peoples, Nigeria, c. 1920-1940, wood, iron staples - Hood Museum of Art - DSC09183.JPG|Carved door; circa 1920–1940; wood with iron staples; by
Nupe people;
Hood Museum of Art (
Hanover,
New Hampshire, USA) Headdress, early 1900s, Guinea Coast, Nigeria, Ejagham people, wood, antelope skin, basketry, cane, metal - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08739.JPG|Headdress; early 1900s; wood, antelope skin, basketry, cane, metal; by
Ejagham people;
Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) Headdress, early 1900s, Guinea Coast, Nigeria, Idoma people, wood, hair - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08726.JPG|Headdress; early 1900s; wood, hair;
Idoma people; Cleveland Museum of Art Kalabari masks BM.jpg|
Otobo (hippopotamus) mask; by
Kalabari people;
British Museum (London)
Mali The primary ethnic groups in
Mali are the
Bambara (also known as Bamana) and the Dogon. Smaller ethnic groups include the Marka and the Bozo fishermen of the
Niger River. Ancient civilizations flourished in areas like Djenné-Djenno and Timbuktu, where numerous ancient bronze and terracotta figures have been unearthed.
Djenné-Djenno Djenné-Djenno is famous for its figurines, which depict humans and animals, including snakes and horses. They are made of terracotta, a material that has been used in
West Africa for approximately ten thousand years. Seated figure grom Mali, 13th century, Djenné peoples, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1981.218.JPG|Terracotta seated figure; 13th century; earthenware; 29.9 cm (11 in.) high;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (
New York City, USA) The raised marks and indentations on the back of this hunched Djenné figure may represent disease or, more likely, scarification patterns. The facial expression and pose could depict an individual in mourning or pain. Statuette féminine-Région de Djenné-Mali.jpg|Female figure; 13th-–15th century; terracotta covered with red ochre; height: , width: , depth: ;
Musée du quai Branly (Paris) Djenne Terracotta Equestrian (13th-15th cent).jpg|Equestrian figure; 13th–15th century; height: 70.5 cm;
National Museum of African Art (
Washington D.C., USA) Mali, valle interna del niger, figura maschile in terracotta, xiv-xvii secolo ca. 01.jpg|Male figure; 14th-17th century;
Cleveland Museum of Art (
Ohio, USA)
Bambara c. late 19th - early 20th centuries,
Art Institute of Chicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles The
Bambara people () adapted many artistic traditions and began to create display pieces. Before commerce was a primary motivation, their art was a sacred craft intended to display spiritual pride, religious beliefs, and customs. Examples of their artworks include the Bamana
n'tomo mask. Other statues were created for communities of hunters and farmers, so that offerings could be left after long farming seasons or group hunts. Bambara art is stylistically diverse, with sculptures, masks, and headdresses that display either stylized or realistic features and either weathered or encrusted patinas. Until recently, the function of many Bambara pieces was not well understood, but in the last twenty years, field studies have revealed that certain types of figures and headdresses were associated with various societies that structure Bambara life. During the 1970s, a group of approximately twenty figures, masks, and TjiWara headdresses belonging to the "Segou style" were identified. The style is distinct and recognizable by its typical flat faces, arrow-shaped noses, all-over body triangular scarifications and, on the figures, splayed hands. ;Masks There are three major and one minor type of
Bambara mask. The first type, used by the N'tomo society, has a typical comb-like structure above the face, is worn during dances, and may be covered with cowrie shells. The second type of mask, associated with the Komo society, has a spherical head with two antelope horns on top and an enlarged, flattened mouth. They are used during dances, but some have a thickly encrusted patina acquired during other ceremonies in which libations are poured over them. The third type has connections with the Nama society and is carved in the form of an articulated bird's head, while the fourth, minor type represents a stylized animal head and is used by the Kore society. Other Bambara masks are known to exist, but unlike those described above, they cannot be linked to specific societies or ceremonies. Bambara carvers have established a reputation for the zoomorphic headdresses worn by Tji-Wara society members. Although they are all different, they all display a highly abstract body, often incorporating a zig-zag motif, which represents the sun's course from east to west, and a head with two large horns. Bambara members of the Tji-Wara society wear the headdress while dancing in their fields at sowing time, hoping to increase the crop yield. ;Statuettes Bambara
statuettes are primarily used during the annual ceremonies of the Guan society. During these ceremonies, a group of up to seven figures, measuring from 80 to 130 cm in height, are removed from their sanctuaries by the elder members of the society. The sculptures are washed, re-oiled and sacrifices are offered to them at their shrines. These figures – some of which date from between the 14th and 16th centuries – usually display a typical crested coiffure, often adorned with a talisman. Two of these figures were ascribed great significance: a seated or standing maternity figure called Guandousou – known in the West as 'Bambara Queen' – and a male figure called Guantigui, who usually appears holding a knife. The two figures were surrounded by Guannyeni attendant figures standing or seated in various positions, holding a vessel, or a musical instrument, or their breasts. During the 1970s, numerous fakes from Bamako which were based on these sculptures entered the market. They were produced in Bamako. Other Bambara figures, called
Dyonyeni, are thought to be associated with either the southern Dyo society or the Kwore society. These female or hermaphrodite figures usually appear with geometric features such as large conical breasts and measure between 40 and 85 cm in height. The blacksmith members of the Dyo society used them during dances to celebrate the end of their initiation ceremonies. They were handled by dancers and placed in the middle of the ceremonial circle. Among the corpus of Bambara figures, Boh sculptures are perhaps the best known. These statues represent a highly stylized animal or human figure and are made of wood which is repeatedly covered in thick layers of earth impregnated with sacrificial materials such as millet, chicken or goat blood, kola nuts, and alcoholic drinks. They were employed by the Kono and the Komo societies and served as receptacles for spiritual forces and could, in turn, be used for apotropaic purposes. Individual creative talents were sometimes viewed as ways to honor spiritual beings.
Dogon Dogon art, which consists primarily of sculptures, revolves around
Dogon religious values, ideals, and beliefs. Dogon sculptures are not made to be seen publicly; they are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, in sanctuaries, or kept with the
Hogon. The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made. Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture include figures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures, horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children, figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet, women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearing cups, musicians, dogs, quadruped-shaped troughs or benches, figures bending from the waist, mirror-images, aproned figures, and standing figures. Signs of other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. The Dogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara. Influence from
Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs. Dogon art is extremely versatile, although common stylistic characteristics – such as a tendency towards stylization – are apparent on the statues. Their art deals with myths whose complex ensemble regulates the life of the individual. The sculptures are preserved in innumerable sites of worship, personal or family altars, altars for rain, altars to protect hunters, and in markets. As a general characterization of Dogon statues, one could say that they render the human body in a simplified way, reducing it to its essentials. Some are extremely elongated with an emphasis on geometric forms. The subjective impression is one of immobility with a sense of solemn gravity and serene majesty, although conveying at the same time a latent movement. Dogon sculpture recreates the hermaphroditic silhouettes of the Tellem, featuring raised arms and a thick patina made of blood and millet beer. The four Nommo couples, the mythical ancestors born of the god Amma, ornament stools, pillars or men's meeting houses, door locks, and granary doors. The primordial couple is represented sitting on a stool, the base of which depicts the earth while the upper surface represents the sky; the two are interconnected by the Nommo. The seated female figures, their hands on their abdomen, are linked to the fertility cult, incarnating the first ancestor who died in childbirth, and are the object of offerings of food and sacrifices by women who are expecting a child. Kneeling statues of protective spirits are placed at the head of the dead to absorb their spiritual strength and to be their intermediaries with the world of the dead, into which they accompany the deceased before once again being placed on the shrines of the ancestors. Horsemen are reminders of the fact that, according to myth, the horse was the first animal present on earth. The Dogon style has evolved into a kind of cubism: ovoid head, squared shoulders, tapered extremities, pointed breasts, forearms and thighs on a parallel plane, and hairdos stylized by three or four incised lines. Dogon sculptures serve as a physical medium in initiations and as an explanation of the world. They serve to transmit an understanding to the initiated, who will decipher the statue according to the level of their knowledge. Carved animal figures, such as dogs and ostriches, are placed on village foundation altars to commemorate sacrificed animals, while granary doors, stools, and house posts are also adorned with figures and symbols. There are nearly eighty styles of masks, but their basic characteristic is great boldness in the use of geometric shapes, independent of the various animals they are supposed to represent. The structure of many masks is based on the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines and shapes, while others feature triangular and conical forms. All masks have large geometric eyes and stylized features. The masks are often
polychrome, but on many the color is lost; after the ceremonies, they were left on the ground and deteriorated due to termites and exposure to the elements. The Dogon continue an ancient masquerading tradition which commemorates the origin of death. According to their myths, death came into the world as a result of primeval man's transgressions against the divine order. Dama memorial ceremonies are held to accompany the dead into the ancestral realm and restore order to the universe. The performance of masqueraders – sometimes as many as 400 – at these ceremonies is considered necessary. In the case of the dama, the timing, types of masks involved, and other ritual elements are often specific to one or two villages and may not resemble those seen in locations only several kilometers distant. The masks also appear during baga-bundo rites performed by small numbers of masqueraders before the burial of a male
Dogon. Dogon masks evoke the form of animals associated with their mythology, yet their significance is only understood by the highest-ranking cult members, whose role is to explain the meaning of each mask to a captivated audience. DogonSatimbe1.JPG|Person who wears a Satimbe mask Figure of a Kneeling Woman MET DP-13314-032.jpg|Figure of a kneeling woman; circa 1500; wood; height: 35.2 cm (13 in.);
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Figure- Equestrian MET 1979.206.85 a.jpeg|Equestrian figure; 16th–17th century; wood; height: 68.9 cm (27 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art DogonStool.jpg|Stool; possibly late 19th to early 20th century; wood & pigment;
National Museum of African Art (
Washington D.C., U.S.)
Other ethnic groups of Mali Female Figure with Raised Arm MET vs1979 206 64.jpg|Black and white picture of a female figure with raised arm; 15th–17th century; wood (ficus, moraceae), sacrificial materials; height: 44.8 cm (17 in.); by the
Tellem people;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Figura zoomorfa. Cultura Tennenkou. Mali. Siglo XII – siglo XVI.jpg|Zoomorphic figurine; 12th-16th century; by
Tennenkou culture;
Museo de Arte Africano Arellano Alonso (
Valladolid, Spain) Personaje enmascarado. Cultura Bankoni. Mali. Siglo V – siglo XVI.jpg|Equestrian figurine; by
Bankoni culture; Museo de Arte Africano Arellano Alonso
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a small, landlocked country north of Ghana and south of Mali and Niger. Economically, it is one of the poorest countries in the world, while its cultural traditions are diverse. This is partly because a significant portion of the population has not converted to Islam or Christianity. Many of the ancient artistic traditions for which Africa is known have been preserved in Burkina Faso because many people continue to honor ancestral spirits and the spirits of nature. To a large extent, they honor the spirits through the use of masks and carved figures. Many of the countries to the north of Burkina Faso have become predominantly Muslim, while many of the countries to the south are heavily Christian. In contrast, many of the people of Burkina Faso continue to offer prayers and sacrifices to the spirits of nature and to their ancestors. As a result, they continue to use the types of art found in many museum collections in Europe and America. One of the principal obstacles to understanding the art of Burkina Faso, including that of the Bwa, has been confusion between the styles of the Bwa, "gurunsi", and Mossi, and confusion of the Bwa people with their neighbors to the west, the Bobo people. This confusion was the result of the use by
French colonial officers of Jula interpreters at the turn of the century. These interpreters considered the two peoples to be the same and therefore referred to the Bobo as "Bobo-Fing" and to the Bwa as "Bobo-Oule." In fact, these two peoples are not related. Their languages and social systems are quite different, as is their art. In terms of artistic styles, the confusion stems from the fact that the Bwa, "gurunsi", and Mossi make masks that are covered with red, white, and black geometric graphic patterns. This is simply the style of the Voltaic or Gur peoples, and also includes the Dogon and other peoples who speak Voltaic languages.
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) in the Ivory Coast'',
Gilbert G. Groud, 2007, mixed materials: tusche and wax crayon The
Baoulé people, the
Senoufo, and the
Dan people are skilled at carving wood, and each culture produces a wide variety of wooden masks. The Ivorian people use masks to represent animals in
caricature, to depict deities, or to represent the souls of the departed. As the masks are held to be of great spiritual power, it is considered taboo for anyone other than specially trained persons or chosen ones to wear or possess certain masks. These ceremonial masks are each thought to have a soul, or life force, and wearing these masks is thought to transform the wearer into the entity the mask represents. Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) also has modern painters and illustrators.
Gilbert G. Groud criticizes ancient beliefs in
black magic, as held with the spiritual masks mentioned above, in his illustrated book
Magie Noire.
East Africa East Africa, a region encompassing countries like Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Ethiopia, has a rich and diverse artistic heritage. From traditional crafts to contemporary expressions, East African art reflects the region's history, cultural complexity, and evolving identity.
Kenya Around
Lake Turkana, ancient petroglyphs exist depicting human figures and animals. Some Bantu-speaking groups create funeral posts, and carvings of human heads atop geometric designs are still produced. These more recent creations are considered a continuation of the practice, although original posts no longer exist. The
Kikuyu people also continue ancient traditions in the designs painted on their shields. Contemporary Kenyan artists include Elimo Njau, founder of the Paa Ya Paa Art Centre, a Nairobi-based artists' workshop. From the
University of Nairobi School of Fine Art and Design came Bulinya Martins and Sarah Shiundu. They are known for their style, use of color, and execution, which builds on foundational design techniques. Unlike many of their Kenyan contemporaries, they paint using oils, acrylics, watercolors, and combinations of these media. The
Eskenazi Museum of Art at Indiana University has a large collection of traditional art objects from Kenya including jewelry, containers, weapons, walking sticks, headrests, stools, utensils, and other objects available online.
Ethiopia church,
Lalibela. Traditional Ethiopian church art Ethiopian art from the 4th to the 20th century can be divided into two broad groupings. The first is a distinctive tradition of Christian art, mostly for churches, in forms including
painting,
crosses,
icons,
illuminated manuscripts, and other metalwork such as crowns. The second includes popular arts and crafts such as textiles,
basketry, and
jewellery, in which Ethiopian traditions are closer to those of other peoples in the region.
Its history goes back almost three thousand years to the kingdom of
D'mt. The
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has been the predominant religion in Ethiopia for over 1500 years, for most of this period in a very close relation, or union, with the
Coptic Christianity of
Egypt, so that
Coptic art has been the main formative influence on Ethiopian church art. Prehistoric
rock art comparable to that of other African sites survives in a number of places. Until the arrival of Christianity, stone
stelae, often carved with simple reliefs, were erected as grave markers and for other purposes in many regions;
Tiya is one important site. The "pre-Axumite" Iron Age culture of about the 5th century BCE to the 1st century CE was influenced by the
Kingdom of Kush to the north and settlers from
Arabia, and produced cities with simple temples in stone, such as the ruined one at
Yeha, which dates to the 4th or 5th century BCE. The powerful
Kingdom of Aksum emerged in the 1st century BCE and dominated Ethiopia until the 10th century, having become very largely Christian from the 4th century. Although some buildings and large, pre-Christian
stelae exist, there appears to be no surviving Ethiopian Christian art from the Axumite period. However, the earliest works remaining show a clear continuity with Coptic art of earlier periods. There was considerable destruction of churches and their contents in the 16th century when the country was invaded by Muslim neighbors. The revival of art after this was influenced by Catholic European art in both iconography and elements of style, but retained its Ethiopian character. In the 20th century, Western artists and architects began to be commissioned by the government and to train local students, and more fully Westernized art was produced alongside continuations of traditional church art. although the earliest surviving examples come from the church of Debre Selam Mikael in the
Tigray Region, dated to the 11th century AD. However, the
7th-century AD followers of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad who fled to
Axum in temporary exile mentioned that the original
Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion was decorated with paintings. Ethiopian painting, on walls, in books, and in
icons, is highly distinctive, though the style and
iconography are closely related to the simplified Coptic version of late antique and Byzantine
Christian art. From the 16th century,
Roman Catholic church art and European art in general began to exert some influence. However, Ethiopian art is highly conservative and retained much of its distinct character until modern times. The production of
illuminated manuscripts for use continued up to the present day. Another important form of
Ethiopian art, also related to Coptic styles, is crosses made from wood and metal. They are usually
copper alloy or
brass, plated (at least originally) with gold or silver. The heads are typically flat
cast plates with elaborate and complex
openwork decoration. The cross motif emerges from the decoration, with the whole design often forming a rotated square or circular shape, though the designs are highly varied and inventive. Many incorporate curved motifs rising from the base, which are called the "arms of
Adam". Except in recent Western-influenced examples, they usually have no
corpus, or figure of Christ, and the design often incorporates numerous smaller crosses. Engraved figurative imagery has sometimes been added. Crosses are mostly either
processional crosses, with the metal head mounted on a long wooden staff, carried in religious processions and during the
liturgy, or hand crosses, with a shorter metal handle in the same casting as the head. Smaller crosses worn as jewellery are also common. Ethiopia has great ethnic and linguistic diversity, and styles in secular traditional crafts vary greatly in different parts of the country. There is a range of traditions in textiles, many with woven geometric decoration, although many types are also usually plain. Ethiopian church practices make great use of colorful textiles, and the more elaborate types are widely used as church vestments and as hangings, curtains, and wrappings in churches, although they have now largely been supplanted by Western fabrics. Examples of both types can be seen in the picture at the top of the article. Icons may normally be veiled with a semi-transparent or opaque cloth; very thin
chiffon-type cotton cloth is a speciality of Ethiopia, though usually with no pattern. Colorful basketry with a coiled construction is common in rural Ethiopia. The products have many uses, such as storing grains, seeds, and food and being used as tables and bowls. The Muslim city of
Harar is well known for its high-quality basketry, and many craft products of the Muslim minority relate to wider Islamic decorative traditions.
Tanzania carving in
ebony Art from
Tanzania is known for paintings by modern artists like
Tinga Tinga or
George Lilanga, and for traditional as well as modern
Makonde sculptures. Like in other regions, there is also a diversified tradition of producing
textile art. Several types of raffia cloth are produced for different purposes, the most common form of which is a plain woven cloth that is used as the foundation for decorated textile production.
Luba Kingdom The
Kingdom of Luba or Luba Empire (1585–1889) was a pre-colonial Central African state that arose in the marshy grasslands of the
Upemba Depression in what is now the southern part of the
Democratic Republic of Congo. Today, the
Luba people or baLuba are an ethno-linguistic group indigenous to the south-central region of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. The majority of them live in this country, residing mainly in its
Katanga,
Kasai, and
Maniema provinces. As in the
Kuba Kingdom, the Luba Kingdom held the arts in high esteem. A carver held a relatively high status, which was displayed by an
adze (axe) that he carried over his shoulder.
Luba art was not very uniform because of the vast territory the kingdom controlled. However, some characteristics are common. The prominent role of women in creation myths and political society resulted in many objects of prestige being decorated with female figures. Appuie-tête Luba-RDC.jpg|Headrest; 19th century; wood; height: , width: , thickness: ;
Musée du quai Branly (Paris). This headrest presents 19th century Luba hairstyles, as well as the long limbs, bent-back legs, cylindrical torso and dynamic pose typical of the artist who made it. File:Brooklyn Museum 22.1129 Image of Standing Woman (2).jpg|Figurine of a standing woman; late 19th or early 20th century; wood; 27.9 × 8.3 × 10.2 cm (11 × 3 × 4 in.);
Brooklyn Museum (New York City) Brooklyn Museum 82.213.1 Heddle Pulley with Female Head.jpg|Heddle pulley with female head; late 19th or early 20th century; wood; 20.6 × 5.4 × 4.8 cm (8 × 2 × 1 in); Brooklyn Museum Masque kifwebe luba-Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale.JPG|Kifwebe mask; wood;
Royal Museum for Central Africa (
Tervuren, Belgium)
Other ethnic groups of Democratic Republic of Congo Brooklyn Museum 31.1822 Anthropomorphic Pot.jpg|Anthropomorphic pot; early 20th century; pottery; 40.0 × 24.0 cm (15 × 9 in.); by
Mangbetu people;
Brooklyn Museum (New York City) Plank Mask (Emangungu), possibly early 1900s, Central Africa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bembe people, wood - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08684.JPG|Plank mask (emangungu); possibly early 1900s; wood; by
Bembe people;
Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) African Art, Yombe sculpture, Louvre.jpg|Head of a scepter; 19th century; by
Yombe people Gabon o rep. dem. del congo, lumbo, figura femminile, xx secolo.jpg|Female figure; 20th century; wood; by
Lumbo people;
Indianapolis Museum of Art (USA) Yaka Maske Museum Rietberg RAC 503.jpg|Mask; early 20th century; wood, raffia & color pigments; by
Yaka people;
Rietberg Museum (
Zürich, Switzerland) Hemba Stuhl Museum Rietberg RAC 126.jpg|Chair (throne) of a chief; 19th or early 20th century; wood; by
Hemba people; Rietberg Museum Master of the Sundi area Funerary figure.jpg|Funerary figure (tumba); 19th century; wood; by
Sundi people; Rietberg Museum Mask (kifwebe), male - Songye - Royal Museum for Central Africa - DSC06089.JPG|Mask (kifwebe); wood; by
Songye people;
Royal Museum for Central Africa (
Tervuren,
Belgium) Mbangu mask - Central Pende, Southern Bandundu, DRC - Royal Museum for Central Africa - DSC06657.JPG|Mbangu mask; wood, pigment & fibres; height: 27 cm; by
Pende people; Royal Museum for Central Africa. Representing a disturbed man, the hooded V-looking eyes and the mask's artistic elements – face surfaces, distorted features, and divided colour – evoke the experience of personal inner conflict Tomb figure, soapstone - Mboma - Royal Museum for Central Africa - DSC06950.JPG|Tomb figure;
soapstone; by
Boma people; Royal Museum for Central Africa. Stone sculptures are extremely rare in African art Africa Hemba Warrior Ancestor Figure 2 Kimbell.jpg|Warrior ancestor figure; 19th century; wood; ; by
Hemba people;
Kimbell Art Museum (
Fort Worth,
Texas, USA) Statuette Holoholo-Musée ethnologique de Berlin.jpg|Statuette of a woman; 19th century or early 20th century; by
Holoholo people;
Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Germany)
Chad Sao The Sao civilization, which existed in
Middle Africa from circa the 6th century BC to as late as the 16th century AD, lived by the
Chari River around
Lake Chad in territory that later became part of
Cameroon and
Chad. Their most significant artworks include terracotta figurines representing humans and animals. Other artifacts show that the Sao were skilled workers in
bronze,
copper, and
iron. Ciad, cultura sao, statuette antropomorfe, dalla regione di ndjamena, IX-XVI sec. 01.JPG|Anthropomorphic figurine;
terracotta; 9th-16th century;
Musée du quai Branly (Paris) Ciad, cultura sao, statuette antropomorfe, dalla regione di ndjamena, IX-XVI sec. 02.JPG|Anthropomorphic figurine; 9th-16th century; terracotta; Musée du quai Branly Figurines anthropomorphes Sao-Tchad (3).jpg|Anthropomorphic figurine; 9th-16th century; terracotta; Musée du quai Branly Figurines anthropomorphes Sao-Tchad (4).jpg|Anthropomorphic figurine; 9th-16th century; terracotta; Musée du quai Branly Sao culture, head. Terracotta, Woutio, Cameroon. Muséum de La Rochelle.jpg|Head; terracotta;
Muséum d'Histoire naturelle de La Rochelle (
La Rochelle, France) Figurine zoomorphe-Sao.jpg|Zoomorphic figure; 9th-16th century; terracotta; Musée du quai Branly Fragment de pectoral Sao.jpg|Fragment of a pectoral; 9th-16th century; cuprous alloy; Musée du quai Branly
Gabon from
Gabon or
Cameroon; wood colored with kaolin (china clay); by
Fang people; Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Worn with a full costume in a night masquerade to settle disputes and quell misbehaviour, this calm visage was terrifying to wrong-doers. The
Fang people create masks, basketry, carvings, and sculptures. Fang art is characterized by clarity of form and distinct lines and shapes. Bieri, boxes for holding ancestral remains, are carved with protective figures. Masks with faces painted white with black features are worn in ceremonies and for hunting. Myene art centers on rituals for death. Female ancestors are represented by white-painted masks worn by male relatives. The
Bekota use brass and copper to cover their carvings and use baskets to hold ancestral remains. Compared to some other African countries, Gabon has less tourism, and its art production is less driven by commerce.
Southern Africa Botswana In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of
Etsha and
Gumare are noted for their skill at crafting
baskets from
Mokola Palm and local
dyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage; large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain; and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. The artistry of these baskets is being steadily enhanced through color use and improved designs as they are increasingly produced for commercial use. The oldest evidence of art in the region consists of ancient paintings from both Botswana and
South Africa. Depictions of hunting and both animal and human figures, made by the
San people and dating back more than 20,000 years, are found within the
Kalahari desert.
Zimbabwe The culture of
Great Zimbabwe is known for its buildings and sculptures, including the eight
soapstone Zimbabwe Birds. These appear to have had a special significance and were presumably mounted on
monoliths. Modern
Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved
international success.
Southern Africa's oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features.
South Africa Mapungubwe ; 1075–1220; from
Mapungubwe National Park (
Limpopo, South Africa);
Mapungubwe Collection (University of
Pretoria Museums) The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1075–1220) was a pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the
Shashe and
Limpopo rivers, south of
Great Zimbabwe. The most famous Mapungubwe artwork is a tiny golden rhino, known as the
Golden Rhinoceros of Mapungubwe. In other graves from Mapungubwe, objects made of iron, gold, copper, ceramic, and glass beads were found.
Southern Ndebele The
Southern Ndebele people are famous for the way they paint their houses. Distinct geometric forms against stark, contrasting colors form the basis of the Ndebele style, which encompassed the architecture, clothing, and tools of the people. While color has almost always had a role in drawing emotions in art, the Ndebele were one of the first Southern African tribes to utilize a wide array of colors to convey specific meanings in their daily lives. 20150312 Maastricht; University of Maastricht; Murals in Faculty of Business and Economics 1.jpg|Murals in the Ndebele style from the
Maastricht University (the
Netherlands) 20171017 Maastricht, collegezaal Tongersestraat 3.jpg|Murals in the Ndebele style from the Maastricht University ApronMeputo-BMA.jpg|A beaded apron or
meputo; late 19th-early 20th century; hide, glass beads, metal beads, straw; ;
Birmingham Museum of Art (
Alabama, USA)
North Africa Art in many African traditions often carries symbolic meaning related to community values, ancestral reverence, or spiritual beliefs. For example, masks may represent spirits or deities, and sculptures can symbolize fertility, protection, or wisdom.
Rock Art and Prehistoric Art: North Africa's artistic heritage dates back to prehistoric times, evidenced by rock art in the Sahara Desert. Sites like Tassili n'Ajjer in Algeria feature thousands of petroglyphs and paintings, depicting animals, hunting scenes, and daily life from as far back as 10,000 BCE. These works reflect the relationship between early humans and their environment.
Egypt Persisting for 3,000 years and thirty dynasties, the "official"
art of Ancient Egypt centered on the state religion. The art ranged from stone carvings of both massive statues and small
statuettes to wall art that depicted both history and mythology. In
2600 BC, the maturity of Egyptian carving reached a peak that was not surpassed for another 1,500 years, until the reign of
Ramesses II. Much of the art possesses a certain stiffness, with figures poised upright and rigid in a regal fashion. Bodily proportions also appear to be mathematically derived, giving rise to a sense of idealized perfection in the figures depicted. This was likely used to reinforce the godliness of the ruling caste. Narmer Palette.jpg|Both sides of the
Narmer Palette; circa 3100 BC;
greywacke; height: 63 cm (24 in.); from
Hierakonpolis (Egypt);
Egyptian Museum (
Cairo). The Narmer palette is the quintessential statement of the Egyptians' mythology of kingship. A clear manifesto of royal power, it is also one with multiple layers of symbolism. File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg|A guardian statue which reflects the facial features of the reigning king, probably
Amenemhat I or
Senwosret I, and which functioned as a divine guardian for the
imiut. Made of cedar wood and plaster 1919–1885 BC Princess Nefertiabet before her meal-E 15591-IMG 9645-gradient.jpg|Stele of Princess
Nefertiabet eating; 2589-2566 BC; limestone & paint; height: 37.7 cm (14 in.), length: 52.5 cm (20 in.), depth: 8.3 cm (3 in.); from
Giza;
Louvre (Paris). This finely executed relief represents the most succinct assurance of perpetual offering for the deceased. Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|The
Bust of Nefertiti; 1352-1336 BC; limestone, plaster & paint; height: 48 cm (19 in.); from
Amarna (Egypt);
Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Germany). Perhaps the most iconic image of a woman from the ancient world, the Bust of
Nefertiti is difficult to contextualize because it seems so exceptional. CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|The
Mask of Tutankhamun; circa 1327 BC; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm (21 in.), width: 39.3 cm (15 in.), depth: 49 cm (19 in.); from the
Valley of the Kings (
Thebes, Egypt); Egyptian Museum. The mummy mask of
Tutankhamun is perhaps the most iconic object to survive from ancient Egypt.
Nubia and Sudan The people of Nubia, living in southern Egypt and the northern region of
Sudan, developed historical art styles similar to those of their Egyptian neighbors to the north. However, Nubian art was not merely a product of colonization by ancient Egypt, but was also the result of a mutual exchange of ideas and ideologies along the
Nile Valley. The earliest art of the region comes from the
Kerma culture, which was contemporary to the
Old and
Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Art from this period exhibits
Egyptian faience alongside the distinct black-topped pottery of Nubian origin. In the later
Napatan period of the
Kingdom of Kush, art showed more influence from Egypt as the people in the region worshiped Egyptian gods. After these historical periods, the inhabitants of Sudan created artworks in different styles, both in indigenous African ways and influenced by
Byzantine Christian,
Islamic, and
modern art traditions.
African Diaspora == Museums ==