Settlements Settlement in the Nordic Bronze Age period consisted mainly of single farmsteads, which usually consisted of a
longhouse plus additional four-post built structures (
helms). Longhouses were initially two aisled, and after three aisled structure became normal. Some longhouses were exceptionally large (up to 10m wide by 50m in length, or 500 m2 in area) and have been described as "chiefly halls", with sitting areas "the size of a megaron in contemporary Mycenean palaces". Larger settlements are also known from the later Bronze Age (such as
Hallunda and Apalle in Sweden, and Voldtofte in Denmark), as well as fortified sites, specialist workshops for metalwork and ceramic production, and dedicated cult houses. Settlements were geographically located on higher ground, and tended to be concentrated near the sea. Certain settlements functioned as regional centres of power, trade, craft production, and ritual activity. The Bronze Age fortified town of
Hünenburg bei Watenstedt in northern Germany (12th c. BC) served as a trading post for people from Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea region, as well as a cult centre and the seat of a ruling elite. The settlement was surrounded by a large stone-faced wall in the Late Bronze Age. Another Late Bronze Age settlement at Vistad in
Östergötland, Sweden, was surrounded by a substantial wooden fortification pallisade. The total population in Scandinavia during the Nordic Bronze Age is estimated to have been c. 300,000-500,000 people, with a relatively low population density of c. 12–15 people per km2 in the most densely populated micro-regions and four to six people in less dense areas.
Burials , Sweden, Associated with Nordic Bronze Age settlements are burial cairns, mounds and cemeteries, with interments including oak coffins and urn burials; other settlement associations include rock carvings, or bronze
hoards in wetland sites. A minimum of 50,000 burial mounds were constructed between 1500 and 1150 BC in Denmark alone. , mummified remains in oak coffin, Denmark, c. 1300 BC Oak coffin burials dating from the 14th–13th centuries BC contained well-preserved mummified bodies, along with their clothing and burial goods. Notable examples include the
Egtved Girl,
Skrydstrup Woman, and mummies from
Borum Eshøj. Bodies were intentionally mummified by watering the burial mounds to create a bog-like, oxygen-free environment within the graves. This practice may have been stimulated by cultural influence from Egypt, as it coincided with the appearance of Egyptian artefacts in Scandinavia and the appearance of Baltic amber in Egypt (e.g. in the tomb of
Tutankhamun). However, intentional mummification within oak coffin burials has also been noted in Britain at an earlier date (c. 2300 BC). , Sweden, c. 1000 BC A fundamental change in burial customs took place at the turn from the Older to the Younger Bronze Age. After a long period of inhumation burials, people gradually switched to cremation burials. During Period III of the Early Bronze Age (1300-1100 BCE), cremated remains were still buried in the old tradition in elongated pits or tree/oak coffins. With the beginning of the Later Bronze Age (Period IV, 1100-900 BCE), urn burials became established, although for a long time they were still placed in and around barrows. It was not until the seventh century that the first urn fields were created. Researchers used to think that urnfields appeared at the beginning of the Iron Age, around 530 BCE, but new findings from a group of researchers at the
Collaborative Research Centre 1266 at the
University of Kiel show that this happened a century earlier than previously thought. The Late Bronze Age
King's Grave of Seddin in northern Germany (9th century BC) has been described as a "Homeric burial" due to its close similarity to contemporary elite burials in Greece and Italy. A large 'king's hall' and an associated settlement were located near to the Seddin grave.
Agriculture In the Nordic Bronze Age, both agriculture (including cultivation of
wheat,
millet, and
barley) and
animal husbandry (keeping of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs) were practiced. Fishing and hunting were also sources of food, which included shellfish, deer, elk, and other wild animals. There is evidence that oxen were used as draught animals; domesticated dogs were common, but horses were rarer and probably status symbols. During the 15th and 14th centuries BC, southern Scandinavia produced and deposited more elaborate bronzes in graves and hoards than any other region of Europe. With regards to the number and density of metal deposits, the Nordic Bronze Age became the richest culture in Europe. More Bronze Age swords have also been found in Denmark than anywhere else in Europe. Uniform crucibles found at metal workshop sites indicate the mass production of certain metal artefacts. The archaeological legacy also encompasses locally crafted wool and wooden objects.
Rock carvings The west coast of
Sweden, namely
Bohuslän, has the largest concentration of Bronze Age
rock carvings in Scandinavia; and Scandinavia has the largest number of Bronze Age rock carvings in
Europe. The west coast of Sweden is home to around 1,500 recorded rock engraving sites, with more being discovered every year. When the rock carvings were made, the area was the coastline; but it is now 25 meters above
sea level. The engravings in the region depict everyday life, weapons, human figures, fishing nets, ships, chariots, plows, the sun, deer, bulls, horses, and birds. By far, the most dominant theme is human figures and ships, especially ships — 10,000 of which have recorded. The typical ship depicts a crew of six to thirteen. Rock carvings in the late Bronze Age, and even the early Iron Age, often depict conflict, power, and mobility. Important sites of Bronze Age rock art include
Tanum in Sweden and
Madsebakke in Denmark.
Warrior ethos , Denmark, c. 1200-1000 BC|253x253px The culture of the Nordic Bronze Age was that of a warrior culture, with a strong emphasis on weapons and status. Helle Vandkilde of Aarhus University, in her publications from 1995, describes most men of the period as having followed a warrior ethos. More than 70% of burials dating to the Nordic Bronze Age contain metal objects of various kinds, the most common objects being swords and daggers. It is noted that the people of the Nordic Bronze Age also placed great importance on helmets of intricate design, which they put much effort into making. However, not all of the weapons and armour of the Nordic Bronze Age were used for warfare. Some of them are believed to have been ceremonial, especially the helmets. Despite the importance of weapons in their society, archaeological discoveries suggest that intrasocietal violence was not particularly common in the Nordic Bronze Age, especially not when compared to contemporary European Bronze Age cultures. The people of the Nordic Bronze Age seem to instead have been directing their military efforts outwards, likely against people of neighbouring cultures, and are believed to have participated in
battles along the Amber Road and other trade routes that were important for the continuous prosperity of their society. Many of the stone carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict boats in great numbers as well as groups of armed men manning the boats. Finds such as the
Hjortspring boat, among others, give further credence to the theory that Bronze Age people in Scandinavia relied heavily on naval dominance of the waters surrounding their region in order to secure trade and safety. Ancient DNA and archaeological evidence indicates that people from the Nordic Bronze Age sphere were involved in the conflict at the
Tollense valley battlefield in northern Germany (13th century BC), "the largest excavated and archaeologically verifiable battle site of this age in the world".
International contacts and trade , Sweden, 1500-1300 BC|227x227px The beginning of metal production and increased exchange appears at around 2100 BCE, when copper was imported from Slovakia via central Germany, and tin from the
British Isles. The triangular network is relevant for a few centuries during the
Late Neolithic (2250-1700 BCE) and the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (1700-1600 BCE). Copper was also imported from Britain in the Early Bronze Age in exchange for amber. , Sweden, 16th-15th century BC|227x227px The Nordic Bronze Age maintained intimate trade links with the
Tumulus culture and
Mycenaean Greece. The Nordic Bronze Age exported
amber through the
Amber Road, and imported metals in return. During the time of the Nordic Bronze Age, metals, such as
copper,
tin and
gold, were imported into Scandinavia on a massive scale. Copper was imported from
Sardinia,
Iberia and
Cyprus. The trade network was briefly disrupted during the
Late Bronze Age collapse in the 12th century BC. Evidence for horse-drawn chariots appears in Scandinavia , around the same time or earlier than it appears in Greece. In both cases the chariots appear to have come from the region of the Carpathian Basin or the western steppe.
Cheek-pieces and whip handles in Denmark dating from this time feature curvilinear 'wave-band' designs that are also found on contemporary artefacts from the Carpathian Basin and Greece, including in the elite
shaft graves at Mycenae. These designs subsequently appear on Nordic Bronze Age metalwork, including on the gold disc of the
Trundholm Sun Chariot. Engraved depictions of chariots appear in Scandinavian rock art from onwards, as they do on engraved stone stelae from Mycenae. A depiction of a two-wheeled vehicle with four-spoked wheels is also known from Kültepe in Central Anatolia, dating from , concurrent with the appearance of steppe horses in this region. In contrast, chariot wheels from the
Sintashta culture and
Andronovo cultures near the Urals had more than four spokes. Miniature spoked-wheel models have been found in the Carpathian Basin dating to the 20th–19th centuries BC, and cheek-pieces are known there from c. 2000 BC. According to Maran (2020, 2014) chariots probably originated "in the entire zone between the Carpathian Basin and the Southern Ural", rather than just in the Ural region, and spread southwards from there to Greece and the Near East. In the case of Greece this is given some support by analyses of skeletal material from the shaft graves at Mycenae, which also indicate connections to the north. Chechushkov & Epimakhov (2018) suggest that chariot technology developed before 2000 BC in the
Don-
Volga interfluve, in the context of pre-Sintashta cultures (such as the
Abashevo culture). According to Kristiansen and Larsson (2005), "foreign origins were most consciously demonstrated in the formation of the Nordic Bronze Age Culture from 1500 BC onwards, basing itself on a Minoan/Mycenaean template." During the 15th–14th centuries BC the Nordic Bronze Age and Mycenaean Greece shared the use of similar flange-hilted swords, as well as select elements of shared lifestyle, such as campstools, drinking vessels decorated with solar symbols, and tools for body care including razors and tweezers. This "Mycenaean package", including spiral decoration, was directly adopted in southern Scandinavia after 1500 BC, creating "a specific and selective Nordic variety of Mycenaean high culture" that was not adopted in the intermediate region of Central Europe. These similarities can not have come about without intimate contacts, probably through the travels of warriors and mercenaries. Archaeological evidence further indicates the existence in both regions of shared institutions linked to warriors. Specifically, the dual organisation of leadership between a
Wanax (ritual chief) and a
Lawagetas (warrior chief) in Mycenaean Greece was apparently replicated in the Nordic Bronze Age. However this dual organization may have also been part of a shared
Indo-European tradition. Other similarities have been noted in artistic iconography from both regions and its associated cosmology. Some of the contacts between Scandinavia and Greece were probably conveyed through Central Europe. According to Kristiansen & Larsson (2005), "From the eighteenth century BC until the beginning of the fifteenth century BC networks were operating between the Hittites, the steppe and the Carpathians, with direct link to northern Europe. During this period basic institutions were transmitted north in exchange for amber and horses, while at the same time the institution of chariotry was transmitted south from the steppe". Close similarities have been noted between Nordic Bronze Age figurines, horned helmets and rock art and similar artefacts and imagery from Late Bronze Age
Sardinia and
Iberia. Vandkilde links these to the
Sea Peoples who attacked Egypt in 1178 BC, who "may even have included maritime warriors from the Atlantic zone and northern Europe." Contacts during the Late Bronze Age (period IV–VI) were more intensive with Central Europe and Italy. A lot of similarities are seen in art and iconography between different continental
Urnfield cultures and the
Hallstatt culture. Copper was imported from Central Europe and Italy.
Weights and measures Several studies have found evidence for the existence of standardised units of weight and measurement in the Nordic Bronze Age.
Calendar , Denmark, c. 1500-1300 BC Various authors have suggested that repeated motifs, symbols, stamps or markings found on certain Nordic Bronze Age artefacts numerically encode information related to astronomy and calendars. These artefacts include the disc of the
Trundholm Sun Chariot, bronze belt plates (such as the
Langstrup Belt Plate), gold bowls, bronze urns, the
Balkara ‘ritual object’ and certain types of petroglyphs. These interpretations are related to similar analyses of objects from Central Europe such as the
Nebra Sky Disc and
Golden Hats, which are thought to encode similar information. These repeated symbols are often found on objects which invoke mythological imagery related to movements of the sun, such as the solar chariot, the solar boat, or the 'sun-bird-ship' motif. The archaeologist Christoph Sommerfeld has argued that circular symbols on the Trundholm disc numerically encode knowledge of the 19-year lunisolar
Metonic cycle, which may also be encoded on the Nebra Disc and Golden Hats. The archaeologist Mikkel Hansen has suggested that 'hand signs' and associated linear or circular markings found among Scandinavian petroglyphs are related to similar cast-markings found on bronze sickles from central Germany, notably from the
Frankleben hoard, which are thought to represent a
numeral system related to the
lunar calendar. A possible depiction of a tall conical hat on one of the stone stelae in the
Kivik King's Grave, and other petroglyphs depicting individuals with tall conical hats, may be related to the conical Gold Hats from southern Germany and France, which are thought to have been worn by 'oracles' or 'king-priests' who had a knowledge of astronomy.
Religion and cult , Denmark, 1400 BC.|194x194px There is no coherent knowledge about the Nordic Bronze Age religion, its
pantheon, world view, and how it was practised. Written sources are lacking, but archaeological finds draw a vague and fragmented picture of the religious practices and the nature of the religion in this period. Only some possible sects and only certain possible tribes are known. Some of the best clues come from
tumuli, elaborate
artifacts,
votive offerings, and rock carvings scattered across Northern Europe. There are many
rock carving sites from this period. The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts, for example bronze axes and swords. Many rock carvings are uncanny in resemblance to those found in the
Corded Ware culture. There are also numerous
Nordic Stone Age rock carvings, those of northern Scandinavia mostly portray
elk. from Denmark, c. 1000 BC|264x264px Many finds, especially rock carvings, indicate
sun worship was central to the religion. The
Sun, when personified, was conceived of as female and associated with various objects, like the
swastika,
sun cross, and boats, and animals such as horses, birds, snakes, and fish (see also
Sól), though snakes may only have been associated with the Sun by one group of religious specialists, as seen on their razors; otherwise the myths depicted on rock carvings seem to indicate the opposite, that snakes were the enemy of the Sun. During the day, the Sun is thought to be transported by horse or by boat, then at night embarks a night ship to be transported in at night, switching for a day ship or horse afterwards, repeating this process every night and day in its journey. A pair of male
twin gods are believed to have been worshiped in close conjunction with the sun goddess and were associated with objects such as
lurs, horned helmets, and weapons, particularly axes and swords. Where sacrificial artifacts have been buried, they are often found in pairs and paired objects, like boats, are very common on rock carvings. The horned helmets found in sacrificial deposits are thought to be purely ceremonial and to have no practical function, i.e. in actual warfare. The
Divine Twins are thought to be the protectors of the sun, ensuring its safe passage through the night so it can rise again in the morning and make its usual path across the daylit sky, repeating this every night and day. , Denmark, c. 1200 BC|162x162px Jeanette Varberg has proposed, in light of archaeological evidence pairing horse gear with women's ornaments (and wagons), that there may have been a goddess associated with war and horses that was worshiped in the Late Bronze Age which she calls the Lady of the Battle and of the Horse.
Sacrifices, including of animals, weapons, jewellery, and humans, often had a strong connection to bodies of water. Water bodies such as bogs, ponds, streams, and lakes were often used as ceremonial and holy places for sacrifices and many artifacts have been found in such locations. Ritual instruments such as bronze
lurs have been uncovered, especially in the region of Denmark and western Sweden. Lurs are also depicted in several rock carvings and are believed to have been used in ceremonies. Nordic Bronze Age religion and mythology is believed to be mostly
Indo-European in character and to itself be the ancestor to
Norse mythology and religion and wider
Germanic mythology and religion. Similarities have been noted between Nordic Bronze Age imagery and the
Nebra Sky Disc from central Germany associated with the
Únětice culture.
Seamanship , c. 400 BC, which closely resembles Bronze Age petroglyphs Thousands of rock carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict ships, and the large stone burial monuments known as
stone ships. Those sites suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in the culture at large. The depicted ships, most likely represents sewn plank built
canoes used for warfare, fishing and trade. These ship types may have their origin as far back as the
Neolithic period and they continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as exemplified by the
Hjortspring boat. 3,600-year-old bronze axes and other tools made from
Cypriot copper have been found in the region. Researchers note that there is great continuity in the way that ships continuously had a strong importance in Scandinavian society. The boat building and seafaring traditions that were established during the Nordic Bronze Age lasted throughout the ages and were further developed upon during the
Iron Age. Some archaeologists and historians believe that the culmination of this sea-focused culture was the
Viking Age. ==Climate==