Celtic toponymy

The Proto-Indo-European language developed into various daughter languages, including the Proto-Celtic language. In Proto-Celtic ("PC"), the Proto-Indo-European ("PIE") sound *p disappeared, perhaps through an intermediate *''. It is a common point between all the Celtic languages. Examples : Latin pater "father", but Gaulish *atir / ater (atrebo, dativ plural), (Old) Irish athair / athir''. After that, languages derived from Proto-Celtic changed PC *kw into either *p or *k (see: P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages). In P-Celtic languages, PC *kw changed into *p. In Q-Celtic dialects it developed into /k/. P-Celtic languages include the Continental Gaulish language and the Brittonic branch of Insular Celtic. Common Brittonic is the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton. Ancient Q-Celtic languages include the Continental Celtiberian and the Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Goidelic is the ancestor of the Gaelic languages Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. Examples : PIE "four" > • Proto-Italic "four" > Latin • Proto-Celtic "four" > Irish , Scottish Gaelic "four", but Gaulish "fourth", Welsh "four", Old Breton > Breton "four" == Frequent elements in place-names and their cognates in modern Celtic languages ==

• Celtic '', suffix : Gaulish -(i)acon (Latin -(i)acum / (i)acus) -euc > -ek / -eg (-ec), Welsh -(i)og'', etc. • Celtic '''' 'base, foundation' > Old Irish '''' 'base, stem, stock', Welsh '''' 'base, stem, stock' • Celtic '''' 'hill, high place' > Welsh '''' 'honourable, respected' (not directly related to Welsh '''' 'hill'), Irish '''' 'hill; strength, vigour, significance'. • Celtic '''' 'high, lofty, elevated'; used as a feminine divine name, rendered Brigantia in Latin, Old Irish 'exalted one', name of a goddess. • Celtic '''' 'bridge' • Celtic '''' 'water' > Old Irish '''' 'water', Welsh Welsh '', Cornish dur, Breton dour'' 'water' • Celtic '''' 'fortress' > Welsh '''' 'city' and '''' 'fortress', Irish '''' 'fortress' • Celtic '''' 'door, gate, forum' > Welsh '', Breton dor'' 'door' • Celtic '''' 'clearing (wood), assart' > Welsh (tir) ial • Celtic '''' 'head' > Gallo-Brythonic *penn-, Welsh '''' 'head, end, chief, supreme', Breton penn, but Old Irish cenn > Irish '''' 'head' • Celtic '''' 'field, plain' > Welsh '''' 'field', Old Irish mag > Irish '''' 'plain' • Celtic '''' 'wood', 'sacred enclosure', 'sanctuary' > Old Irish nemed 'sanctuary' • Celtic '''' 'ford' > Welsh rhyd 'ford' • Celtic '''' 'white, fair, blessed' > Welsh ' / ' 'white, blessed', Old Irish ', Irish ' 'fair' ==European connection==

• Brigantes • Cambodunum > Champéon (France, Cambdonno / Cambindonno 6-7th century), Champbezon (France, Chambedon 11th century), Kempten (Germany, Camboduno 3rd century) • Mediolanum > Meulan (France), Milano (Italy).. • Noviomagus > Nouvion, Nogent, Novion, Nijon, etc. (France), Nijmegen (Netherland); former name of Chichester, Crayford, England • Ebur(i)acum > Ivry, Évry (France), former name of York, England • Epiacum > Epfig (Alsace, France, Epiaco 12th century); X (unknown location in Great-Britain) • Lugdunum > Lyon, Lion, Loudun, Laon, Lauzun (France), Leiden / Leyde (Netherlands) • Rigomagus > Riom (France), Remagen (Germany) • Segodunum > Suin, Syon (France); X unclear location near Würzburg (Germany) • Vuerodunum > several Verdun (France), Verduno (Italy, Piedmont), Verdú (Spain, Catalonia), Birten (Germany, Xanten) ==Continental Celtic==

Austria • Bregenz, Vorarlberg, Latin Brigantium : from Celtic '''' 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia) • Wien, English Vienna, Latin Vindobona : from Celtic '''' 'white' (Welsh ') + ' 'base, foundation' (Welsh '''' 'base, bottom, stump', Irish '''' 'bottom, base') Belgium • Ardennes, Latin Arduenna Silva : from divine name Arduinna : from Celtic '''' 'high' (Irish ') + Latin ' 'forest' • Gent, English Ghent, Latin Gandavum : from divine name Gontia France Most of the main cities in France have a Celtic name (the original Gaulish one or the name of the Gaulish tribe). • Amiens : from Ambiani, a Celtic tribe, replaces Samarobriva 'bridge on the river Somme' • Angers : from Andecavi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Juliomagus 'market place dedicated to Julius' • Argentan : from Argentomagus 'silver market', based on arganto- 'silver' cognate to Old Welsh argant > ariant, Old Breton argant > Breton ''arc'hant'' 'silver' + magos 'market' • several places called Argenton • Argentorate, now Strasbourg • Arles : from Arelate • Arras : from Atrebates, a Celtic tribe, replaces Nemetacum, nemeto- 'sacred place' + suffix -acon • Augustonemetum, now Clermont-Ferrand • Autun : from Augustodunum, 'town dedicated to Augustus' • Avignon : from Avenii a Celtic tribe. It was one of the three cities of the Cavari • Bayeux : from Badiocassi / Bodiocassi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Augustodurum. 'forum dedicated to Augustus' • Bourges : from Biturigi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Avaricum • Briançon Greek ἀμάρη (amárē), 'channel'. Or, from Celtic '''', 'spelt, a type of grain'. • Annelsbach a suburb of Höchst • Ansbach in Mittelfranken originally Onoltesbah 837 CE : from Celtic ''''-, 'ash tree' plus an OHG bach, 'small river'. • Boiodurum, now Innstadt, Passau, Niederbayern : first element is Celtic '''', tribal name (Boii), possibly 'cattle-owner' (cf. Irish '''' 'cow') or 'warrior'. Second element is Celtic '''' 'fort'. • Bonn : from Celtic '''' 'base, foundation' (Welsh '''' 'base, bottom, stump') • Boppard : from Gaulish ', "hill of victory". Containing the elements ' 'victory' (Welsh '''' 'gain, benefit') + '''', 'hill'. • Düren, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Latin ' : from Celtic ' 'fort' • Hercynia Silva (Latin), a vast forest including the modern Black Forest : from Celtic '''' 'oak' or divine name Perkwunos + Latin '''' 'forest' • Kempten im Allgäu, Bavaria, Latin Cambodūnum : Celtic cambodūnom, *cambo- 'curved, bent, bowed, crooked', dūnon 'fortress' • Mainz, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Moguntiacum : from Celtic '''', 'mighty, great, powerful', used as a divine name (see Mogons) + Celtic suffix -(i)acon • Meggingen : from Celtic '''' 'plain, field' • Neumagen-Dhron, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Noviomagus Trevirorum • Noviomagus Nemetum (Latin), now Speyer, Rheinland-Pfalz : from Celtic '''' 'new' (Welsh ') + ' 'field, plain' • Remagen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Rigomagus or Ricomagus : second element is from Celtic '''' 'field, plain'. The first may be a variant of Celtic '''' 'king, chief of *touta' • Tübingen : maybe hybrid form comprising a Celtic element and a Germanic suffix -ingen. The element tub- in Tübingen could possibly arise from a Celtic dubo-, s.m., 'dark, black; sad; wild'. As found in the Anglo-Irish placenames of Dublin, Devlin, Dowling, Doolin and Ballindoolin. Perhaps the reference is to the darkness of the river waters that flow near the town cf. river Doubs (France) and Dove (GB); if so, then the name can be compared to Tubney, Tubbanford, Tub Hole in England. Compare the late Vulgar Latin '''' 'morass', from Gaulish. The root is found in Old Irish ' > Irish ', Old Welsh dub > Welsh '', Old Cornish duw > Middle Cornish du'', Breton ', Gaulish ', '''', all meaning 'black; dark' • Worms, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Borbetomagus : second element from Celtic '''', 'plain, field', first perhaps related to Old Irish '''''' 'fierce, violent, rough, arrogant; foolish' Hungary • Hercynium jugum (Latin) : from Celtic '''' 'oak' or divine name Perkwunos + Latin '''' 'summit' Italy • Brianza, Lombardy, Latin Brigantia : from Celtic '''' 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia) • Genova, Liguria, English Genoa, Latin ' : Perhaps from Celtic ' 'mouth [of a river]'. (However, this Ligurian place-name, as well as that of Genava (modern Geneva), probably derive the Proto-Indo-European root 'knee'.) • Milano, Lombardy, English Milan, Latin Mediolanum : from Celtic medio- 'middle, central' > Old Irish mide 'middle, centre', Old Breton med, met > Breton mez 'middle', etc. and ' > ', a Celtic cognate of Latin '''' 'plain', with typical Celtic loss of /p/ or '' > Old Irish lán, Welsh llawn, Breton leun'' 'full' • Conímbriga, Coimbra, Portugal : from Celtic '''' 'rocky height or outcrop'. • Évora, Alentejo, Portugal : from Celtic '''' 'plural genitive of the word eburos (trees)'. • Lacobriga, Algarve, Portugal : from Celtic '''' 'Lake of Briga'. Romania • Băișoara and other sites in Transylvania • Boian in Sibiu, Boianu Mare in Bihor County, villages coming from Boii • Călan city in Hunedoara. • Deva, capital of Hunedoara, originally a city of the Dacians • Galați • Noviodunum now Isaccea means "new fortress" + . • Timiș River in Banat. Serbia • Singidunum (Latin), now Beograd, English Belgrade : second element from Celtic '''' 'fortress' Slovenia • Celje, Latinized Celeia in turn from '''', meaning 'shelter' in Celtic • Neviodunum (Latin), now Drnovo : second element from Celtic '''' 'fortress' Spain Asturias and Cantabria • Deva, several rivers in northern Spain, and Pontedeva, Galicia, Spain : from Celtic '''' 'goddess; holy, divine' • Mons Vindius (now the Cantabrian Mountains), NW Spain : from Celtic '''' 'white'. Castile • Segovia, Castile and León, Spain, Greek Segoubía : from '''', conjectured to be Celtic for 'victorious', 'strength' or 'dry' (theories). Galicia • Tambre, a river in Galicia (Spain), Latin Tamaris : possibly from Celtic '''' 'dark' (cf. Celtic ' > Welsh ' 'darkness'). Other theories. • O Grove, Medieval Latin Ogrobre 912: from Celtic '''' 'acute; promontory' and Celtic *brigs 'hill'. • Bergantiños, Medieval Latin Bregantinos 830 : from Celtic '''' 'high, lofty, elevated', or divine name Brigantia, or from Celtic *brigantīnos 'chief, king'. • Dumbría, Medieval Latin Donobria 830 : from Celtic '''' 'fortress' + Celtic * 'bridge'. • Val do Dubra and Dubra River, Galicia : from Celtic '''' 'water', '''' 'waters' (Welsh ''''). • Monforte de Lemos (region), Latin Lemavos, after the local tribe of the Lemavi : from Celtic '''' 'elm' + suffix -avo. • Nendos (region), Medieval Latin Nemitos 830 : from Celtic '''' 'sanctuary'. • Noia, Galicia, Spain, Greek Nouion: from Celtic '''' 'new' (Welsh ). Switzerland Switzerland, especially the Swiss Plateau, has many Celtic (Gaulish) toponyms. This old layer of names was overlaid with Latin names in the Gallo-Roman period, and, from the medieval period, with Alemannic German and Romance names. For some names, there is uncertainty as to whether they are Gaulish or Latin in origin. In some rare cases, such as Frick, Switzerland, there have even been competing suggestions of Gaulish, Latin and Alemannic etymologies. Examples of toponyms with established Gaulish etymology: • Solothurn, from Salodurum. The ' element means "doors, gates; palisade; town". The etymology of the ' element is unclear. • Thun, Bern: '''' "fort" • Windisch, Aargau, Latin Vindonissa: first element from '''' "white" • Winterthur, Zürich, Latin Vitudurum or Vitodurum, from ' "willow" and ' • Yverdon-les-Bains, from Eburodunum, from ' "yew" and ' "fort". • Zürich, Latin Turicum, from a Gaulish personal name Tūros • Limmat, from Lindomagos "lake-plain", originally the name of the plain formed by the Linth and Lake Zurich. ==Insular Celtic==

Brittonic England (excluding Cornwall) The main survey of Celtic place-names in this region is by Richard Coates and Andrew Breeze. Evidence for a Celtic root to place names in England is widely strengthened by early monastic charters, chronicles and returns: examples relate to Leatherhead and Lichfield. To describe a place as of the Celts, the Old English wealh becoming Wal/Wall/Welsh is often used. This was the main Germanic term for Romano-Celtic peoples, such as the Britons. Such names are a minority, but are widespread across England. For example, a smattering of villages around the heart and east of The Fens hint at this: West Walton, Walsoken, and the Walpoles indicate their continued presence. Nearby Wisbech, King's Lynn and Chatteris have Celtic topographical elements. • Amwythig (Welsh; Shrewsbury), Shropshire, from Brittonic ("little defense"). • Arden (forest of), Warwickshire - from Celtic '''' 'high' (Irish '''') • From Brythonic '''' 'river' (Welsh ''''): • Avon (river), Gloucestershire/Wiltshire/Somerset • Avon (river), Wiltshire/Hampshire/Dorset • Avon (river), Northamptonshire/Warwickshire/Worcestershire/Gloucestershire • Avon or Aune (river), Devon • From Celtic '''' 'water' (Irish uisce): • Axe (river), Devon/Dorset • Axe (river), Somerset • Axminster, Devon • Axmouth, Devon • First element from Celtic '''' 'hill': • Brean, Somerset • Bredon, Worcestershire • Breedon on the Hill, Leicestershire • Brewood, Staffordshire • Brill, Buckinghamshire • From Celtic '''' 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia): • Brent (river), Greater London • Brentford, Greater London • Bryn, Greater Manchester - from Welsh bryn, 'hill'. • Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, the -lem element is a Celtic district name from '''' ("elm"). • Camulodunum (Latin), now Colchester, Essex - from '''' 'Camulus' (divine name) + Celtic *dūnon 'fortress' • Catterick, North Riding of Yorks., ' ("battle") + ' ("rampart") + onjon (suffix). (Irish cruach) • Creech St Michael, Somerset • Crewkerne, Somerset • Crich, Derbyshire • Cricket St Thomas, Somerset • Crickheath, Shropshire • Cricklade, Wiltshire • Crewe, Cheshire - from Old Welsh *criu 'river crossing' • Cunececestre (Old English), now Chester-le-Street, County Durham, from Latin Concangis, from '''', a root of uncertain meaning. • From the equivalent of Welsh ynys ("island"). • Ince, Cheshire • Ince Blundell, Sefton • Leatherhead, Surrey - from Brythonic *lēd- [from Celtic '] + ' [from Celtic ''''] = "Grey Ford" • Manchester, Latin Mamucium or Mancunium (referring to the shape of a hill) • Morville, Shropshire, Mamerfeld (c. 1138) (+ OE feld). • Noviomagus (Latin), now Chichester, West Sussex and Crayford, Kent - from Celtic '''' 'new' (Welsh ') + ' 'field, plain' • Onn, Staffordshire, from *onnā ("ash trees"). • From '' and its descendants (Welsh pant, Cumbric pant''). • Pant, Austwick, West Riding of Yorkshire • York, Greek Ebōrakon, Latin ' or ' - from Celtic '''' 'yew' Scotland The post-6th century AD Brittonic languages of Northern England and Scotland were Cumbric and Pictish. Cumbric place-names are found in Scotland south of the River Forth, • Aviemore, Inverness-shire - An Aghaidh Mhòr in Gaelic, possibly involving Brittonic *ag- ("a cleft"). • Burnturk, Fife - formerly Brenturk, equivalent to Welsh '''' ("boar hill"). • Dull, Perthshire - equivalent to Welsh '''' ("haugh, meadow"). • Hebrides - Ebudes in Ptolemy (c. 140 AD), possibly from ancient Brittonic ep- ("a horse"; cf. Welsh ''''). • Keith, Banffshire - equivalent to Welsh '''' ("wood, forest"). • Meggernie, Perthshire - from an element cognate with Welsh '''' ("boggy meadow"). • Orchy, Argyll (river) - in Gaelic Urchaidh, from ancient Brittonic are-cētia ("on the wood"). • Panmure, Angus - equivalent to Welsh '''' ("big hollow"). • Rattray, Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh '''' ("ramparts town"). Wales The vast majority of placenames in Wales (part of the United Kingdom) are either Welsh or anglicized Welsh. Cornwall The vast majority of placenames in Cornwall are either Cornish or anglicized Cornish. For examples, see List of places in Cornwall. Brittany The vast majority of placenames in the west of Brittany (part of France) are either Breton or derived from Breton. For examples, see :Category:Populated places in Brittany. Goidelic England Place names in England derived partly or wholly from Goidelic languages include: • Aireyholme, Yorkshire (Great Ayton), recorded as Erghum (1138), from Old Irish airgh ("summer pastures"). • Cambois, Northumberland, possibly from Old Irish '''' ("bay, creek") • Carkin, Yorkshire, possibly from Old Irish carric ("a rock"). • Castle Eden, County Durham, possibly from Old Irish étan ("forehead, hill-brow"). • †Crosskelloc, Lancashire (Ulverston), from Irish cros ("a cross") + Chelloc (personal name). • Durdar, Cumberland (St Cuthbert Without), from Gaelic doiredarach ("oak copse"). • Noctorum, Cheshire, from Irish cnocc-tírim ("dry hill"). • Dovenby, from personal name Dufan of Irish origin (OIr 'Dubhán') • Dunkenhalgh, Lancashire (Hyndburn), from the Gaelic personal name Donnchad (> English Duncan) (+ Old English halh, "haugh"). • Fixby, Yorkshire, from the Gaelic Irish personal name Fiach • Gatenby, Yorkshire, from the Irish personal name Gaithen (+ Old Norse byr, "farm"). • Glassonby, from the Irish personal name Glassan • †Iocemhil, Lincolnshire (Killingholme), possibly contains the Irish personal name Eogan. • Malmesbury, Wiltshire, from the Irish founder of the abbey Máel Dub • Mellishaw, Lancashire (Lancaster), possibly the Irish personal name Mdeldn (+ Old Norse haugr). • Melmerby, Yorkshire, from the Old Irish personal name Máel Muire • Yockenthwaite, Yorkshire, contains the Irish personal name Eogan (+ Old Norse þveit, "clearing"). Place names that directly reference the Irish include Irby, Irby upon Humber, Ireby and Ireleth. Place names with Scot- or similar, such as Scothern in Lincolnshire or Scotton in the North Riding of Yorkshire, may refer to Gaelic speakers from Scotland or Ireland, since Old English Scottas originally had connotations of Irish Gaels. Ireland The vast majority of placenames in Ireland are anglicized Irish language names. Scotland The majority of placenames in the Highlands of Scotland (part of the United Kingdom) are either Scottish Gaelic or anglicized Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic-derived placenames are very common in the rest of mainland Scotland also. Pictish-derived placenames can be found in the northeast, while Brythonic-derived placenames can be found in the south. Isle of Man Many placenames on the Isle of Man (a Crown dependency) are Manx or anglicised Manx, although there are also many Norse-derived place names. == See also ==