, cathedral church of the Bishop of Rome:
Sacros(ancta) Lateran(ensis) eccles(ia) omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput meaning "Most Holy Lateran Church, of all the churches in the city and the world, the Mother and Head" The
Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy is based on the idea that it was instituted by
Christ and that
papal succession is traced back to
Peter the Apostle in the
1st century. The authority for the position is derived from the
Confession of Peter documented in when, in response to Peter's acknowledgment of Jesus as the
Messiah and
Son of God, which many relate to
Jesus' divinity,
Jesus responded: In his letter to Rome,
Ignatius of Antioch says that the church at Rome "presides in the place of the region of the Romans" (προκάθηται ἐν τόπῳ χωρίου Ῥωμαίων). Scholars such as
Francis A. Sullivan say that there was no single "bishop" of Rome until well after the year 150 AD, and that there was no papacy for the first three centuries. Sullivan "expressed agreement with the consensus of scholars that available evidence indicates that the church of Rome was led by a college of presbyters, rather than a single bishop, for at least several decades of the second century."
Raymond E. Brown, while acknowledging the developmental aspect of bishoprics, did believe that early popes had high roles of authority among presbyters in Rome, and thus, it makes sense to speak of their successors. Jesuit historian Klaus Schatz states that, "If one had asked a Christian in the year 100, 200, or even 300 whether the bishop of Rome was the head of all Christians, or whether there was a supreme bishop over all the other bishops and having the last word in questions affecting the whole Church, he or she would certainly have said no." He believes that this is because questions like these presuppose modern categories, which took time to develop. He goes on to explain how primacy was understood in the first centuries. He also believes it likely that "there very quickly emerged a presider or 'first among equals. In the
first three centuries of Christianity the church in Rome intervened in other communities to help resolve conflicts.
Pope Clement I did so in
Corinth in the end of the
first century. In the
third century,
Pope Cornelius convened and presided over a synod of 60 African and Eastern bishops, and his rival, the
antipope Novatian, claimed to have "assumed the primacy". From the beginning of his papacy in 401,
Pope Innocent I was seen as the general arbitrator of ecclesiastical disputes in both the East and the West. During his papacy, the Roman apostolic See was seen as the ultimate resort for the settlement of all ecclesiastical disputes. His communications with
Victricius of Rouen,
Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as his actions on the appeal made to him by
John Chrysostom against
Theophilus of Alexandria, show that opportunities of this kind were numerous and varied.
Pope Leo I was a significant contributor to the centralisation of spiritual authority within the church and in reaffirming papal authority. The bishop of Rome had gradually become viewed as the chief patriarch in the Western church. On several occasions, Leo was asked to arbitrate disputes in Gaul. One involved
Hilary of Arles, who refused to recognize Leo's judicial status. Leo appealed to past practice, "And so we would have you recollect, brethren, as we do, that the Apostolic See, such is the reverence in which it is held, has times out of number been referred to and consulted by the priests of your province as well as others, and in the various matters of appeal, as the old usage demanded, it has reversed or confirmed decisions: and in this way 'the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace Ephesians 4:3 has been kept'", Feeling that the primatial rights of the bishop of Rome were threatened, Leo appealed to the civil power for support and obtained, from
Valentinian III, a decree of 6 June 445, which recognized the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Peter, the dignity of the city, and the legislation of the
First Council of Nicaea; and provided for the forcible extradition by provincial governors of any bishop who refused to answer a summons to Rome.
Gelasius I, who served from 492 to 496, in a controversy with Anastasius, the Byzantine emperor, likewise fought to maintain the doctrine of papal supremacy. This dispute was an incipient point of conflict between the
Holy See and the Empire. From the late 6th to the late 8th centuries there was a turning of the papacy to the West and its escape from subordination to the authority of the
Byzantine emperors of
Constantinople. This phase has sometimes incorrectly been credited to
Pope Gregory I (who reigned from 590 to 604), who, like his predecessors, represented to the people of the Roman world a church that was still identified with the empire. Unlike some of those predecessors, Gregory was compelled to face the collapse of imperial authority in northern Italy. As the leading civil official of the empire in
Rome, it fell to him to take over the civil administration of the cities and to negotiate for the protection of Rome itself with the
Lombard invaders threatening it. Another part of this phase occurred in the 8th century, after the rise of the new religion of
Islam had weakened the Byzantine Empire and the Lombards had renewed their pressure in Italy. The popes finally sought support from the Frankish rulers of the West and received from the Frankish king
Pepin The Short the first part of the Italian territories later known as the
Papal States. With
Pope Leo III's
coronation of
Charlemagne, first of the Carolingian emperors, the papacy also gained his protection. In letters concerning the
Second Council of Nicea, the Roman Church is referred to as the "head of all churches" twice; at the same time it affirms Christ to be the head of the church, and the Apostle Peter is referred to as the "chief [of the] Apostles"—but when listed with Paul they are together referred to as the "chief apostles".
Second phase of papal supremacy From the middle of the 11th century and extending to the middle of the 13th century was the second great phase in the process of papal supremacy's rise to prominence. It was first distinguished in 1075 by Gregory VII's bold attack on the traditional practices whereby the emperor had controlled appointments to the higher church offices. The attack spawned the protracted civil and ecclesiastical strife in
Germany and
Italy known as the
Investiture Controversy. Secondly, it was distinguished in 1095 by Urban II's launching of the
Crusades, which, in an attempt to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim domination, marshaled under papal leadership the aggressive energies of the European
nobility. Both these efforts greatly enhanced papal prestige in the 12th and 13th centuries. Such powerful popes as
Alexander III (r. 1159–81),
Innocent III (r. 1198–1216),
Gregory IX (r. 1227–1241), and
Innocent IV (r. 1243–1254) wielded a primacy over the church that attempted to vindicate a jurisdictional supremacy over emperors and kings in temporal and spiritual affairs. As Matthew Edward Harris writes, "The overall impression gained is that the papacy was described in increasingly exalted terms as the thirteenth century progressed, although this development was neither disjunctive nor uniform, and was often in response to conflict, such as against Frederick II and Philip the Fair". Early in this phase, defense of Papal supremacy was voiced by
Anselm of Canterbury (1093–1109). Anselm insisted on his right and obligation to go to Rome to receive the
pallium, symbolic of his metropolitan authority. King
William Rufus refused to permit this as he had not as yet recognized
Urban II as opposed to
Clement III, who had been installed by
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. A council was held at
Rockingham on 25 February 1095, where Anselm boldly asserted the authority of Urban in a speech giving testimony to the doctrine of papal supremacy.
Gallicanism Gallicanism was a movement in the
Kingdom of France to augment the rights of the State and to prejudice the rights of the
Catholic Church in France. An example of Gallicanism was the dispute between King
Louis XIV of France and the
Holy See about the application of the 1516
Concordat of Bologna after Louis XIV's extension of the throughout the Kingdom of France in 1673. The dispute led to the 1682
Declaration of the Clergy of France promulgated by the 1681
Assembly of the French clergy. The Articles asserted that the civil power has absolute independence; that the pope is inferior to the General Council and the decrees of the
Council of Constance were still binding; that the exercise of pontifical authority should be regulated by the ecclesiastical canons, and that dogmatic decisions of the pope are not irrevocable until they have been confirmed by the judgment of the whole church. The
apostolic constitution promulgated by
Pope Alexander VIII in 1690, and published in 1691, quashed the entire proceedings of the 1681 Assembly and declared that the
Declaration of the clergy of France was null and void, and invalid. In 1693, Louis XIV rescinded the four articles and "wrote a letter of retraction" to
Pope Innocent XII. Those members of the 1681 Assembly, who were presented as candidates for vacant episcopal sees and were refused papal confirmation of their appointment, received confirmation, in 1693, only after they disavowed everything that the 1681 Assembly decreed regarding ecclesiastical power and pontifical authority.
Second Vatican Council At the
Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) the debate on papal primacy and authority re-emerged, and in the dogmatic constitution
Lumen gentium, the Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. Vatican II sought to clarify the ecclesiology stated in Vatican I. The result is the body of teaching about the papacy and episcopacy contained in
Lumen gentium. Vatican II reaffirmed everything Vatican I taught about papal primacy, supremacy and infallibility, but it added important points about bishops. Bishops, it says, are not "vicars of the Roman Pontiff". Rather, in governing their local churches they are "vicars and legates of Christ". Together, they form a body, a "
college", whose head is the pope. This episcopal college is responsible for the well-being of the Catholic Church. Here in a nutshell are the basic elements of the Council's much-discussed communio ecclesiology, which affirms the importance of local churches and the doctrine of collegiality. In a passage about collegiality, Vatican II teaches: "The order of bishops is the successor to the college of the apostles in their role as teachers and pastors, and in it the apostolic college is perpetuated. Together with their head, the Supreme Pontiff, and never apart from him, they have supreme and full authority over the Universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff". Much of the present discussion of papal primacy is concerned with exploring the implications of this passage. Vatican II also emphasized the
sensus fidelium as the vehicle for the living tradition, with the promise to Peter assuring that the gates of Hades will not prevail against the church, which is the people who are the living tradition. Therefore, infallibility is "a doctrine and order rooted in and reflecting the
sensus fidelium".
Rahner insists that a Pope's statements depend essentially on his knowledge of what the living tradition maintains. There is no question of revelation but of preservation from error in the exercise of this oversight. This living tradition was gathered from communication with all the Bishops in the two instances where the Pope defined dogmas apart from a Council, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption. == Opposition ==