Nuristani languages

Nuristani languages can be classified into: • Katë, also called Kati, Kamviri, or Kamkata-vari, is the most-spoken Nuristani language, at 150,000 users. It includes the Western, Northeastern, and Southeastern dialects. • Prasun, also called Vasi-vari, is used by 8,000 speakers. Prasun is considered the most divergent member of the group, featuring a distinct grammar and phonology. • Ashkun, also called Ashkunu or Sanu-viri, is used by 40,000 speakers. Although Ashkun shares commonalities with other Nuristani languages, it has some sound changes that are not shared by any other member. • Nuristani Kalasha, formerly known as Waigali, is used by 12,000 speakers. It is rather closely related to Tregami and Zemiaki. Nuristani Kalasha is distinct from Kalasha-mun, which is an Indo-Aryan language. • Tregami () is used by 3,500 speakers in the three villages of Gambir, Kaṭâr, and Devoz, in the Watapur District of Kunar Province, Afghanistan. • Zemiaki is used by 500 speakers. It is so far the smallest Nuristani language known to exist. Local traditions confirm a historical link with Nuristani Kalasha. ==History==

Nuristani languages are Indo-European, ultimately descending from Proto-Indo-European. The prehistory of Nuristani is unclear, except that it apparently split off from the rest of the Indo-European languages as part of the Indo-Iranian branch. The Proto-Indo-Iranian language of the late 3rd millennium BCE represents the reconstructed ancestral language that the Nuristani languages share with Sanskrit and Avestan as their common origin. This makes Nuristani languages closely related to Indo-Iranian languages like Hindustani and Persian, and more distantly related to other Indo-European languages like Lithuanian and Icelandic. Its classification within the Indo-Iranian branch was debated until recent scholarship settled its position as a third branch, distinct from Indo-Aryan or Iranian, though extensive Indo-Aryan influence can be detected. Proto-Nuristani is the reconstructed ancestral language of all the modern-day Nuristani languages, representing the latest point at which they were still unified as a single language. Proto-Nuristani began breaking off into distinct languages around the 8th century BCE. The influences from surrounding Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages onto early Nuristani languages have been highly complex, due to different patterns of migration and settlement by various Nuristani-speaking tribes throughout their history. The Nuristani languages continued their development as the primary languages of the Nuristani peoples, who maintained a history of interaction with surrounding Indo-Aryan peoples and later the Afghans, who became dominant in the area. In the 1890s, the region of Nuristan was finally incorporated into Afghanistan due to geopolitical pressure. Today, ethnic Nuristanis make up over 99% of the population of Nuristan. The Nuristani languages are spoken by about 78% of the total Nuristani population, and by 84% of villages. ==Vocabulary==

The oldest layer of the Nuristani lexicon is the common inheritance from Proto-Indo-European, shared with other Indo-European languages. For example, Tregami tre is cognate with English three, Russian три (tri), and Spanish tres. Much of the Nuristani lexicon traces back to the Proto-Indo-Iranian language of the late 3rd millennium BCE (compare the Ashkun ćës—"markhor hair" and the Marathi kes—"hair"). Due to the relative isolation of the Nuristan region until the turn of the 20th century, the Nuristani languages were thought to have retained some inherited words from the ancient Indo-Iranian religion, predating Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. However, recent research on Nuristani theonyms shows robust semantic and linguistic correspondences with Indo-Aryan religious terminologies, which points to a significant post-Vedic Hindu influence on Nuristani theology and religious vocabulary. Remnants of inherited Indo-Iranian elements may have survived in some Prasun theonyms with hitherto unknown etymologies. Nuristani-speaking peoples have since long participated in enduring social contact with Indo-Aryan speakers, leading to a large number of early Indo-Aryan loanwards and relative semantic closeness among the shared cognates between Indo-Aryan and Nuristani languages. There have been important historical exchanges between the Nuristani religious practices and earlier forms of Hinduism. For instance, the Katë Indrë may be linked to the Hindu deity Indra, from which it derives the Katë indrõ—"rainbow" ("Indra's bow") and indrëṣ—"earthquake" ("Indra's impulse). Middle Indo-Aryan languages like Gandhari have shared a broader cultural and linguistic milieu with Nuristani languages for many centuries in the Gandhara region. In addition, Nuristani languages borrowed words for "law" and "judge" from the Iranian Bactrian language around the 1st century CE, suggesting some degree of contact with Bactrian-speaking state institutions, possibly the Kushan Empire. The most recent influx of loanwords into Nuristani is from Persian and Pashto, since the incorporation of Nuristan Province into Afghanistan in the 1890s. The chart below compares some basic vocabulary among the modern-day Nuristani languages. ==Syntax==

Many Nuristani languages have subject–object–verb word order, like most other Indo-Iranian languages, and unlike the nearby Dardic Kashmiri language, which has verb-second word order. Sample sentences Katë Prasun ==See also==