Gandhāra grave culture , Swat Valley, |left Gandhara's first recorded culture was the Grave Culture that emerged and lasted until 800 BCE, and named for their distinct funerary practices. It was found along the Middle
Swat River course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to the Valleys of
Dir,
Kunar,
Chitral, and
Peshawar. It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Backwards projections, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat culture people mixed with a population coming from
Inner Asia Mountain Corridor, which carried
Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE.
Vedic Gandhāra According to
Rigvedic tradition,
Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya (Gandhara and
Vahika tribes) and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the
Madra,
Kekaya,
Sivi and
Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with the Gandhara kingdom. The first mention of the Gandhārīs is attested once in the Rigveda| as a tribe that has sheep with good wool. In the Atharvaveda|, the Gandhārīs are mentioned alongside the Mūjavants, the
Āṅgeyas and the
Māgadhīs in a hymn asking fever to leave the body of the sick man and instead go those aforementioned tribes. The tribes listed were the furthermost border tribes known to those in Madhyadesha|, the Āṅgeyas and Māgadhīs in the east, and the Mūjavants and Gandhārīs in the north. The
Gandhara tribe, after which it is named, is attested in the
Rigveda (), while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian
Avesta as
Vaēkərəta, the
seventh most beautiful place on earth created by
Ahura Mazda. The Gāndhārī king
Nagnajit and his son Svarajit are mentioned in the
s, according to which they received Brahmanic consecration, but their family's attitude towards ritual is mentioned negatively, with the royal family of Gandhāra during this period following non-Brahmanical religious traditions. According to the
Jain Uttaradhyayana|, Nagnajit, or Naggaji, was a prominent king who had adopted Jainism and was comparable to Dvimukha of
Pāñcāla, Nimi of
Videha, Karakaṇḍu of
Kaliṅga, and Bhīma of
Vidarbha;
Buddhist sources instead claim that he had achieved Pratyekabuddhayāna|. By the later
Vedic period, the situation had changed, and the Gāndhārī capital of
Takṣaśila had become an important centre of knowledge where the men of went to learn the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge, with the recording that
s went north to study. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana| and the , the famous Vedic philosopher
Uddālaka Āruṇi was among the famous students of Takṣaśila, and the claims that his son Śvetaketu also studied there. In the Chandogya Upanishad|, Uddālaka Āruṇi himself favourably referred to Gāndhārī education to the
Vaideha king
Janaka. During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west Iron Age South Asia, with the
valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom. Due to this important position, Buddhist texts listed the Gandhāra kingdom as one of the sixteen
s ("great realms") of Iron Age South Asia. It was the home of
Gandhari, the princess and her brother
Shakuni the king of
Gandhara Kingdom.
Pukkusāti and Achaemenid Gandhāra tomb, Gandāra soldier, During the 6th or 5th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King
Pukkusāti. There are no historical facts known for certain about Pukkusāti, and all theories about his reign are speculative relying on later
Buddhist sources. According to
Buddhist accounts written centuries later, he had forged diplomatic ties with
Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of the realm of
Avanti.
Pukkusāti's kingdom was described as being 100
Yojanas in width, approximately 500 to 800 miles wide, with his capital at
Taxila in modern day
Punjab as stated in early
Jatakas. It is noted by
R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the
Achamenid king
Cyrus the Great and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as a bulwark against the expansion of the
Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which
Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in
Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. Assuming that Pukkusāti lived during the 6th century BCE, is unknown whether he remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian
satrap, although
Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became a monk after becoming a disciple of the
Buddha. The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of
Darius the Great did the region between the
Indus River and the
Jhelum River become annexed.
Megasthenes Indica, states that the
Achaemenids never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the
Massagetae, it further states that the Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of
Alexander the Great, but they never entered their armies into the region of Gandhara. coin () discovered in
Pushkalavati. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east. Such coins were circulating in the area as currency, at least as far as the
Indus, during the reign of the
Achaemenids. |left During the reign of
Xerxes I, Gandharan troops were noted by
Herodotus to have taken part in the
Second Persian invasion of Greece and were described as clothed similar to that of the
Bactrians. Herodotus states that during the battle they were led by the
Achamenid general
Artyphius. Under Persian rule, a system of centralised administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals. The
Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at
Pushkalavati (
Charsadda). It was also during the
Achaemenid Empire rule of Gandhara that the
Kharosthi script, the script of
Gandhari prakrit, was born through the
Aramaic alphabet.
Hellenistic era Gandhāra According to
Arrian's
Indica, the area corresponding to Gandhara situated between the
Kabul River and the
Indus River was inhabited by two tribes noted as the
Assakenoi and Astakanoi whom he describes as 'Indian' and occupying the two great cities of
Massaga located around the
Swat valley and
Pushkalavati in modern day Peshawar. The sovereign of
Taxila,
Omphis, formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards
Porus, who governed the region encompassed by the
Chenab and
Jhelum River. Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented
Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among the Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the
Indus. In 327 BCE,
Alexander the Great's military campaign progressed to Arigaum, situated in present-day
Nawagai, marking the initial encounter with the
Aspasians.
Arrian documented their implementation of a scorched earth strategy, evidenced by the city ablaze upon Alexander's arrival, with its inhabitants already fleeing. The
Aspasians fiercely contested Alexander's forces, resulting in their eventual defeat. Subsequently, Alexander traversed the River Guraeus in the contemporary
Dir District, engaging with the
Asvakas, as chronicled in Sanskrit literature. The primary stronghold among the Asvakas,
Massaga, characterised as strongly fortified by
Quintus Curtius Rufus, became a focal point. Despite an initial standoff which led to Alexander being struck in the leg by an
Asvaka arrow, peace terms were negotiated between the Queen of Massaga and Alexander. However, when the defenders had vacated the fort, a fierce battle ensued when Alexander broke the treaty. According to
Diodorus Siculus, the Asvakas, including women fighting alongside their husbands, valiantly resisted Alexander's army but were ultimately defeated.
Mauryan Gandhāra of Ashoka in
MansehraDuring the
Mauryan era, Gandhara held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with
Taxila serving as the provincial capital of the North West.
Chanakya, a prominent figure in the establishment of the
Mauryan Empire, played a key role by adopting
Chandragupta Maurya, the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years.
Plutarch's accounts suggest that
Alexander the Great encountered a young
Chandragupta Maurya in the
Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with
Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the
Nanda Empire. This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and
Kambojas, as documented in the
Mudrarakshasa.
Bindusaras reign witnessed a rebellion among the locals of
Taxila to which according to the
Ashokavadana, he dispatched
Ashoka to quell the uprising. Upon entering the city, the populace conveyed that their rebellion was not against
Ashoka or
Bindusara but rather against oppressive ministers. In Ashoka's subsequent tenure as emperor, he appointed his son as the new governor of
Taxila. During this time, Ashoka erected
numerous rock edicts in the region in the
Kharosthi script and commissioned the construction of a monumental stupa in
Pushkalavati, Western Gandhara, the location of which remains undiscovered to date. According to the
Taranatha, following the death of
Ashoka, the northwestern region seceded from the
Maurya Empire, and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavours, Virasena's successor,
Subhagasena, maintained relations with the
Seleucid Greeks. This engagement is corroborated by
Polybius, who records an instance where
Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch.
Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (205–171 BCE), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquest of the Indus valleyThe Indo-Greek king
Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the
Hindu Kush, becoming king shortly after his victory. His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king,
Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king
Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the
Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the
Jhelum River. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was
Theodamas, from the
Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription
"Su Theodamasa" (
"Su" was the Greek transliteration of the
Kushan royal title
"Shau" ("
Shah" or "King")). It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and South Asian mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers was finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the
Yueh-Chi.
Apracharajas The Apracharajas were a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of
Menander II within the
Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early
Kushans. Renowned for their significant support of
Buddhism, this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between
Taxila and
Bajaur. Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and the rulers of
Oddiyana in modern-day
Swat. The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Vijayakamitra, identified as a vassal to
Menander II, according to the
Shinkot casket. This epigraphic source further articulates that
King Vijayamitra, a descendant of Vijayakamitra, approximately half a century subsequent to the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage. He is presumed to have gained the throne in c. 2 BCE after succeeding Visnuvarma, with a reign of three decades lasting til c. 32 CE before being succeeded by his son
Indravasu and then further by Indravasu's grandson Indravarma II in c. 50 CE.
Indo-Scythian Kingdom showing Scythian soldiers dancing.
Cleveland Museum of Art. The
Indo-Scythians were descended from the
Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from Central Asia into South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to
Mathura. The first Indo-Scythian king
Maues established
Saka hegemony by conquering
Indo-Greek territories. Some Aprachas are documented on the
Silver Reliquary discovered at
Sirkap, near Taxila, designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to
Senapati, such as that of
Indravarma who was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja
Vijayamitra.
Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned
Silver Reliquary from the
Indo-Scythian monarch
Kharahostes, which he subsequently re-dedicated as a
Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during the reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology,
Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding
Vijayamitra.
Indravarmas son
Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the
Indo-Scythian ruler
Azes II and
Gondophares of the
Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with a Buddhist
Avadana,
Aspavarma and a
Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of
Buddhism. A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of
Gondophares nephew,
Abdagases I, and
Aspavarma, describing the joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians.
Indo-Parthian Kingdom monastery Takht-i-Bahi (a
UNESCO World Heritage Site) constructed by the Indo-Parthians The
Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its first ruler
Gondophares. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held
Taxila (in the present
Punjab province of
Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence, the capital shifted between
Kabul and
Peshawar. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the
Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to wider groups of
Iranic tribes who lived east of
Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title
Gondophares, which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. During the dominion of the
Indo-Parthians,
Apracharaja Sasan, as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of
Aspavarma, emerged as a figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with
Gondophares, was succeeded by
Sasan, after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognised position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following
Abdagases I. The
Kushan ruler
Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of
Sasan, whilst a numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of
Kujula Kadphises It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of
Nahapana of the
Western Satraps, this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE. It was noted by
Philostratus and
Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with
Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between the
Kabul River and
Taxila had coinage of
Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe
Taxila as being the same size as
Nineveh, being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe
Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of
Porus. Following an exchange with the king,
Phraotes is reported to have subsidised both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom.
Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the
Indus River. This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the
Hydaspes River, in modern-day
Punjab, a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover,
Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the
Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the
Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of
Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.
Tribes mentioned by Pliny During this period in the 1st century CE,
Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the
Vahika and Gandhara regions spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the
Hindu Kush.
Kushan Gandhāra standing Buddha from Gandhara (1st–2nd century),
Tokyo National Museum , with Buddhist motifs The Kushans conquered
Bactria after having been defeated by the
Xiongnu and forced to retreat from the
Central Asian steppes. The
Yuezhi fragmented the region of Bactria into five distinct territories, with each tribe of the Yuezhi assuming dominion over a separate kingdom. However, a century after this division,
Kujula Kadphises of the Kushan tribe emerged victorious by destroying the other four
Yuezhi tribes and consolidating his reign as king. Kujula then invaded
Parthia and annexed the upper reaches of the
Kabul River before further conquering
Jibin. In 78 CE the
Indo-Parthians seceded Gandhara to the Kushans with
Kujula Kadphises son
Vima Takto succeeding the
Apracharaja Sases in
Taxila and further conquering
Tianzhu (India) before installing a general as a satrap. According to the Xiyu Zhuan, the inhabitants residing in the upper reaches of the
Kabul River were extremely wealthy and excelled in commerce, with their cultural practices bearing resemblance to those observed in
Tianzhu (India). However, the text also characterises them as weak and easily conquered with their political allegiance never being constant. Over time, the region underwent successive annexations by
Tianzhu,
Jibin, and
Parthia during periods of their respective strength, only to be lost when these powers experienced a decline. The Xiyu Zhuan describes Tianzhu's customs as bearing similarities to that of the
Yuezhi and the inhabitants riding on elephants in warfare. The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of
stupas and monasteries of this period.
Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent. Gandhara's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king
Kanishka the Great (127 CE – 150 CE). The cities of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) at Sirsukh and Purushapura (modern-day
Peshawar) reached new heights. Purushapura along with
Mathura became the capital of the great empire stretching from Central Asia to Northern
India with Gandhara being in the midst of it. Emperor
Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith;
Buddhism spread from
India to
Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and
Sogdia, where his empire met the
Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. In Gandhara,
Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhist
stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built the 400-foot
Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks
Faxian,
Song Yun, and
Xuanzang who visited the country. The stupa was built during the Kushan era to house Buddhist relics and was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. File:Gandharan sculpture - head of a bodhisattva.jpg|Head of a bodhisattva, File:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|The Buddha and
Vajrapani under the guise of
Herakles,
Kidarites The
Kidarites conquered
Peshawar and parts of the northwest Indian subcontinent including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410 from Kushan empire, around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor
Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of
Kumaragupta I. It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed the Kidarites into northern India. Their last ruler in Gandhara was Kandik, .
Alchon Huns Around 430 King
Khingila, the most notable
Alchon ruler, emerged and took control of the routes across the
Hindu Kush from the Kidarites. Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and
Mehama were found at the Buddhist monastery of
Mes Aynak, southeast of
Kabul, confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450–500 CE. The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "
Hephthalite bowl" from Gandhara, now in the
British Museum, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two
Kidarite noble hunters, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by
Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara. During the reign of
Mihirakula, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular, the writings of Chinese monk
Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks. The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular
Greco-Buddhist art, became extinct around this period. When Xuanzang visited Gandhara in , he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined in favour of
Shaivism and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. It is also noted by
Kalhana that
Brahmins of Gandhara accepted from
Mihirakula gifts of
Agraharams.
Kalhana also noted in his
Rajatarangini how Mihirakula oppressed local
Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into
Kashmir and India and states that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir.
Turk and Hindu Shahis . The headgear has been interpreted as a
turban. The
Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara until 843 CE when they were overthrown by the
Hindu Shahis. The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of
Oddiyana in Gandhara. The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last
Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it was during his reign that the region of
Kabul was lost to the
Persianate Saffarid empire. Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing the region of
Zabulistan. He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with
Samkaravarman of the
Utpala dynasty, resulting in his victory and the latter's death in
Hazara and was the first Shahi noted by
Kalhana. He is depicted as a great ruler with strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of
Udabhanda, a change from the previous capital of
Kabul. Bhimadeva, the next most notable ruler, is most significant for vanquishing the
Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests, his grand-daughter
Didda was also the last ruler of the
Lohara dynasty. Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed
Ghaznavid Empire, however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala, the kingdom of
Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the downfall of the empire in 1026 CE.
Rediscovery , are scattered throughout the region near
Peshawar. By the time Gandhara had been absorbed into the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara's art had been forgotten. After Al-Biruni, the Kashmiri writer Kalhaṇa wrote his book
Rajatarangini in 1151. He recorded some events that took place in Gandhara and provided details about its last royal dynasty and capital
Udabhandapura. In the 19th century, British soldiers and administrators started taking an interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In the 1830s coins of the post-Ashoka period were discovered, and in the same period, Chinese travelogues were translated.
Charles Masson,
James Prinsep, and
Alexander Cunningham deciphered the
Kharosthi script in 1838. Chinese records provided locations and site plans for Buddhist shrines. Along with the discovery of coins, these records provided clues necessary to piece together the history of Gandhara. In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in the 1860s. From then on a large number of Buddhist statues were discovered in the Peshawar valley.
Archaeologist John Marshall excavated at Taxila between 1912 and 1934. He discovered separate Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and a large number of
stupas and monasteries. These discoveries helped to piece together much more of the chronology of the history of Gandhara and its art. After 1947
Ahmed Hassan Dani and the Archaeology Department at the
University of Peshawar made several discoveries in the Peshawar and Swat Valley. Excavation of many of the sites of the Gandhara Civilization is being done by researchers from Peshawar and several universities around the world. ==Culture==