Monroe presided over a peaceful era, with no wars or serious threat of war. However, there was a threat from Seminole Indians based in Florida, a colony owned by Spain, but which Spain could not control. Monroe and his Secretary of State John Quincy Adams worked well with Britain. With British support they came up with the famous 1823 Monroe Doctrine. It declared that the U.S. would remain neutral in European affairs, but would not accept new colonization of Latin America by European powers.
Treaties with Great Britain Near the beginning of Monroe's first term, the administration negotiated two important accords with
Great Britain that resolved border disputes held over from the
War of 1812. The
Rush-Bagot Treaty, signed in April 1817, regulated naval armaments on the
Great Lakes and
Lake Champlain, demilitarizing the border between the U.S. and
British North America. The
Treaty of 1818, signed in October 1818, fixed the present
Canada–United States border from
Minnesota to the
Rocky Mountains at the
49th parallel. The easing of tensions contributed to expanded trade, particularly
cotton, and played a role in Britain's decision to refrain from becoming involved in the First Seminole War.
Spanish Florida Seminole Wars Spain faced a troubling colonial situation after the
Napoleonic Wars, as revolutionaries in
Central America and
South America were beginning to demand independence. The United States had taken control of part of
West Florida in 1810, and, by the time Monroe took office, American settlers also encroached on Spanish territory in
East Florida and
New Spain. With a minor military presence in the Floridas, Spain was unable to restrain the
Seminole Indians, who routinely conducted cross-border raids on American villages and farms and protected slave refugees from the United States. Acquisition of the Floridas was a long-held goal of Monroe, Adams, and other leading Democratic-Republicans, as authority over the region would consolidate U.S. control of its southeastern lands against British and Spanish influence. To stop the Seminole from raiding Georgia settlements and offering havens for runaway slaves, the U.S. Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory. In early 1818, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to the Georgia–Florida border to defend against Seminole attacks. Monroe authorized Jackson to attack Seminole encampments in Spanish Florida, but not Spanish settlements themselves. In what became known as the
First Seminole War, Jackson crossed over into Spanish territory and attacked the Spanish fort at
St. Marks. He also executed two British subjects whom he accused of having incited the Seminoles to raid American settlements. Jackson claimed that the attack on the fort was necessary as the Spanish were providing aid to the Seminoles. After taking the fort St. Marks, Jackson moved on the Spanish position at
Pensacola, capturing it in May 1818. In a letter to Jackson, Monroe reprimanded the general for exceeding his orders, but also acknowledged that Jackson may have been justified given the circumstances in the war against the Seminoles. Though he had not authorized Jackson's attacks on Spanish posts, Monroe recognized that Jackson's campaign left the United States with a stronger hand in ongoing negotiations over the purchase of the Floridas, as it showed that Spain was unable to defend its territories. The Monroe administration restored the Floridas to Spain, but requested that Spain increase efforts to prevent Seminole raids. Some in Monroe's cabinet, including Secretary of War John Calhoun, wanted the aggressive general
court-martialed, or at least reprimanded. Secretary of State Adams alone took the ground that Jackson's acts were justified by the incompetence of Spanish authority to police its own territory, arguing that Spain had allowed East Florida to become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them." His arguments, along with the restoration of the Floridas, convinced the British and Spanish not to retaliate against the United States for Jackson's conduct. News of Jackson's exploits caused consternation in Washington and ignited a congressional investigation. Clay attacked Jackson's actions and proposed that his colleagues officially censure the general. Even many members of Congress who tended to support Jackson worried about the consequences of allowing a general to make war without the consent of Congress. In reference to popular generals who had taken power through military force, Speaker of the House Henry Clay urged his fellow congressmen to "remember that
Greece had her
Alexander,
Rome her
Julius Caesar,
England her
Cromwell,
France her
Bonaparte." Dominated by Democratic-Republicans, the
15th Congress was generally expansionist and supportive of the popular Jackson. After much debate, the House of Representatives voted down all resolutions that condemned Jackson, thus implicitly endorsing the military intervention. Jackson's actions in the First Seminole War would be the subject of ongoing controversy in subsequent years, as Jackson claimed that Monroe had secretly ordered him by the "
Rhea letter" to attack the Spanish settlements, a claim that Monroe denied.
Acquisition of Florida of 1819. Negotiations over the purchase of the Floridas began in early 1818. Don
Luis de Onís, the Spanish
Minister at Washington, suspended negotiations after Jackson attacked Spanish settlements, but he resumed his talks with Secretary of State Adams after the U.S. restored the territories. On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the
Adams–Onís Treaty, which ceded
the Floridas in return for the assumption by the United States of claims of American citizens against Spain to an amount not exceeding $5,000,000. The treaty also contained a definition of the boundary between Spanish and American possessions on the North American continent. Beginning at the mouth of the
Sabine River, the line ran along that river to the
32nd parallel, then due north to the
Red River, which it followed to the
100th meridian, due north to the
Arkansas River, and along that river to its
source, then north to the
42nd parallel, which it followed to the
Pacific Ocean. The United States renounced all claims to the lands west and south of this boundary, while Spain surrendered its claim to
Oregon Country. Spanish delay in relinquishing control of the Floridas led some congressmen to call for war, but Spain peacefully transferred control of the Floridas in February 1821.
Latin America Engagement Monroe was deeply sympathetic to the Latin American revolutionary movements against Spain. He was determined that the United States should never repeat the policies of the Washington administration during the French Revolution, when the nation had failed to demonstrate its sympathy for the aspirations of peoples seeking to establish republican governments. He did not envisage military involvement but only the provision of moral support, as he believed that a direct American intervention would provoke other European powers into assisting Spain. Despite his preferences, Monroe initially refused to recognize the Latin American governments due to ongoing negotiations with Spain over Florida. In March 1822, Monroe officially recognized the countries of
Argentina,
Peru,
Colombia,
Chile, and
Mexico. Between 1820 and 1830, the number of U.S. consuls assigned to foreign countries would double, with much of that growth coming in Latin America. These consuls would help merchants expand U.S. trade in the Western Hemisphere.
Monroe Doctrine The British had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, as the Spanish followed a
mercantilist policy that imposed restrictions on trade between Spanish colonies and foreign powers. In October 1823, Ambassador Rush informed Secretary of State Adams that Foreign Secretary
George Canning desired a joint declaration to deter any other power from intervening in Central and South America. Canning was motivated in part by the restoration of King
Ferdinand VII of Spain by France. Britain feared that either France or the "
Holy Alliance" of
Austria,
Prussia, and
Russia would help Spain regain control of its colonies, and sought American cooperation in opposing such an intervention. Monroe and Adams deliberated the British proposal extensively, and Monroe conferred with former presidents Jefferson and Madison. Monroe was at first inclined to accept Canning's proposal, and Madison and Jefferson both shared this preference. Adams, however, vigorously opposed cooperation with Great Britain, contending that a statement of bilateral nature could limit U.S. expansion. Additionally, Adams and Monroe shared a reluctance to appear as a junior partner in any alliance. Rather than responding to Canning's alliance offer, Monroe decided to issue a statement regarding Latin America in his 1823
Annual Message to Congress. In a series of meetings with the cabinet, Monroe formulated his administration's official policy regarding European intervention in Latin America. Adams played a major role in these cabinet meetings, and the Secretary of State convinced Monroe to avoid antagonizing the members of the Holy Alliance with unduly belligerent language. Monroe's annual message was read by both houses of Congress on December 2, 1823. In it, he articulated what became known as the
Monroe Doctrine. The doctrine reiterated the traditional
U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts, but declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master. Monroe stated that European countries should no longer consider the Western Hemisphere open to new colonization, a jab aimed primarily at Russia, which was attempting to expand its colony on the northern Pacific Coast. At the same time, Monroe avowed non-interference with existing European colonies in the Americas. The Monroe Doctrine was well received in the United States and Britain, while Russian, French, and Austrian leaders privately denounced it. The European powers knew that the U.S. had little ability to back up the Monroe Doctrine with force, but the United States was able to "free ride" on the strength of the British Royal Navy. Nonetheless, the issuance of the Monroe Doctrine displayed a new level of assertiveness by the United States in international relations, as it represented the country's first claim to a
sphere of influence. It also marked the country's shift in psychological orientation away from Europe and towards the Americas. Debates over foreign policy would no longer center on relations with Britain and France, but would instead focus on western expansion and relations with Native Americans.
Russo-American Treaty In the 18th century, Russia had established
Russian America on the Pacific coast. In 1821, Tsar
Alexander I issued
an edict declaring Russia's sovereignty over the North American Pacific coast north of the 51st parallel north. The edict also forbade foreign ships to approach within 115 miles of the Russian claim. Adams strongly protested the edict, which potentially threatened both the commerce and expansionary ambitions of the United States. Seeking favorable relations with the U.S., Alexander agreed to the
Russo-American Treaty of 1824. In the treaty, Russia limited its claims to lands north of
parallel 54°40′ north, and also agreed to open Russian ports to U.S. ships. ==States admitted to the Union==