Racial segregation of churches in the United States

Pre-Civil War era Before the American Civil War, many churches in both the Northern and Southern United States were segregated, both socially and legally although the First Great Awakening did result in the conversion of many slaves into mixed congregations. The first black church was founded in 1773 in South Carolina. In the 19th century, both the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church were founded by African Americans, and they were led by African Americans in addition to exercising control over their own properties. Ministers like John Eliot defended this technique by stating that Native Americans should adopt the mannerisms and customs of English people before earning the privilege of becoming Christian. According to historian Neal Salisbury, John Eliot prompted Native Americans' rapid conversion to Christianity by isolating the Praying Indians into fourteen "praying towns" from the mid-to-late seventeenth century, hence the name. According to James F. Cooper Jr., Associate Professor of History at Oklahoma State University, the Puritans believed that their success in New England depended on "their ability to establish and maintain this scripturally based system of worship". This explains the Puritans' haste in their mission to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Puritans applied church doctrines such as popular consent to their government, although since non-Puritans only qualified as "cultural inferiors", they were only expected to "subject themselves" to the Puritans' supposedly superior form of government. Southern states In the South, church leaders and Christians began to defend slavery by using the Bible and church doctrine. Another prominent reason which was used to justify slavery was the belief that Christians should focus on evangelism, stay out of politics, and follow the law. In the 18th century, many white Protestants did not believe that African Americans were fully human, and as a result, they did not believe that African Americans had souls. Reconstruction era After the American Civil War and the emancipation of slaves in the United States, many Northern African American religious groups created missionary church plants in the South, to connect newly freed African Americans with the African-American denominations of the North. By 1870, attendance at the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church had grown significantly. In urban areas after the 1870s, there was a large push towards multi-denominational evangelism with both white and African American congregations. However, while white evangelicals focused on textual interpretation and history, African American groups focused on social injustices and racism. Sermons influenced the views of congregation members on segregation, which, during this time period, shifted largely from supporting segregation to opposing it. This may have varied widely by region, as Southern pastors were much more racist than their Northern counterparts. Additionally, many evangelical Christians believed that integration and equality may be impossible, as they believed that the world was descending into chaos as a precursor to "the second coming," when Jesus would return to the Earth as described in the Book of Revelation. == Variations among denominations ==

Nontraditional denominations Black Hebrew Israelites The faith of Black Hebrew Israelites is rooted in Judaism. Members believe that they are descendants of the 12 Tribes of Israel. These groups believe that only blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans will be allowed into heaven and that other Jewish groups are not legitimate. According to Cassandra L. Clark, one reason why polygamy was a part of the Mormon culture was to promote the growth of the white race. During the first century of its existence, the LDS Church discouraged social interaction with blacks and encouraged racial segregation. Joseph Smith, who is considered a prophet in the LDS Church, supported segregation, stating, "I would confine them [black people] by strict law to their own species". Other LDS Church leaders, such as David O. McKay, J. Reuben Clark, Henry D. Moyle, Ezra Taft Benson, Joseph Fielding Smith, Harold B. Lee, and Mark E. Petersen were leading proponents of segregation. The First Presidency under George Albert Smith sent a letter on May 5, 1947, stating that "social intercourse between the Whites and the Negroes should certainly not be encouraged because of leading to intermarriage, which the Lord has forbidden." In 1954, apostle Mark E. Petersen taught that segregation was inspired by God, arguing that "what God hath separated, let not man bring together again". Blacks were prohibited from performing in the Salt Lake Tabernacle. During the years, different black families were either told by church leadership not to attend church or chose not to attend church after white members complained. and sent missionaries to southern United States to establish segregated congregations. Despite the change in 1978, the LDS Church still has a white majority. Major branches of Protestantism include, but are not limited to, Calvinists, Baptists, Methodists, and Pentecostals. Calvinism Calvinism is based on the theological argument of John Calvin and began in Europe in the 16th century. Calvinism was first practiced in America by English-speaking colonies. Presbyterian and Reformed churches are both considered Calvinist in doctrine. These two denominations make up approximately 7% of all Protestants. According to the Pew Research Center, approximately 88% of the members of the Presbyterian Church (USA) are white, 5% are black, 3% are Asian, and 4% are Latino. A core belief of the Lutheran Church is sola fide, that it is on the basis of their faith that believers are forgiven their transgressions of the law of God, rather than on the basis of good works which they have done. Lutheranism later expanded to Midwestern America. Robert Graetz, a white pastor of a majority African American Lutheran Church during the Civil Rights Movement, was particularly involved. Graetz protested against the arrest of Rosa Parks and advocated for integrated church services. Unlike many other Protestant traditions, there is not a Black church organization or denomination that is specifically Lutheran. The two major Lutheran denominations, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), are predominantly white. Pentecostalism and Holiness were especially attractive to African Americans from the South because the focus on personal religious experiences rather than the focus on texts and religious doctrines was similar to the way in which Christianity was practiced during the era of slavery. Another important charismatic figure was Charles Finney, who ran popular church revivals and preached abolitionist views as he toured the South. There are many different Pentecostal churches in America. The Church of God in Christ is a predominantly black denomination, with 84% of their members being black, 5% being white, and 8% being Latino. Baptists came to the Southern United States to preach the gospel to white people and African Americans during the Revolutionary War. The Baptist message was largely focused on individual experience and salvation. At the beginning of the Baptist movement, many congregations were integrated. Additionally, Northern Baptists morally objected to slavery more than Southern Baptists, who regarded slavery as a fact of life. However, both were worried about the divide that these opposite views on slavery could cause among congregations and leaders. Today, Baptists make up the largest African American denominational group in the United States. Founder John Wesley did not originally intend to found a new denomination, but rather reform the Church of England. Currently, the two major Methodist churches in America are the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the United Methodist Church. There is a clear racial divide between the two groups. According to Michael De Groote of Deseret News, very few non-denominational churches (about 5%) reflect practices of historically Black churches. Thousands of non-denominational, Protestant congregations have emerged in recent decades. Many of these in large metropolitan areas have highly integrated, multi-racial congregations and staff, regardless of their location in the North or the South. Some of the largest churches in the country, whose services are regularly broadcast on national television networks, belong to this category. According to the Pew Research Center, "nothing in particular" denominations are relatively diverse, with 64% of their members being white, 12% being black, 15% being Latino, 5% being Asian, and 5% being mixed or other. According to historian Christine Leigh Heyrman, evangelicalism was introduced to the South by missionaries in the 1740s. Evangelical denominations believe in an admittance of sin, and letting God into their hearts to save them from this inherent sin. They aim to share these beliefs with others, which is called evangelizing, hence the name. After it was introduced to the South, evangelicalism began to spread in America among white southerners in the 1830s. Heyrman describes how interracial services occurred; however, there were often complaints or racist comments made by white members. This is the highest percentage of conservatives in any branch of religion included in the study, which consisted of Christian, non-Christian, and other unaffiliated groups. In 1940 only 63.7% of African American Catholics attended segregated churches, as compared to 94% of African American Protestants. Vischer says that the smaller rates of segregation may be due in part to the fact that Catholic churches are more religiously focused in comparison to Protestant churches, which are more socially focused. The majority of other major Christian denominations have a much higher percentage of white members. In his article "Black Catholic Conversion and the Burden of Black Religion", Matthew Cressler says that scholars have often questioned why African-Americans convert to Catholicism. According to Williams, "people of Black African descent constitute approximately one-fourth, or 300 million, of the world's 1.2 billion Catholics.". == Implications ==

Continued societal segregation One effect of segregation in churches may be continued segregation in other parts of U.S. society. As religious segregation furthers in-group homogeneity, it makes the racial divisions throughout all of society even more pronounced. White racism A 1999 study of "European-Americans' racial attitudes" showed that among these white churchgoers, those who go to segregated or primarily white churches are more likely to exhibit racist behaviors or to have prejudiced ideas about African Americans. Those who attend integrated churches are about equal in racial attitudes to those who do not attend church at all, but those who attend racially segregated churches are more likely to be both covertly and overtly racist than either group. It is difficult to posit whether this intolerance is caused by attending a segregated church, or if those who hold prejudiced views are more likely to seek out a segregated church. Women in black churches also organized for rights and representation for women and African Americans. Women's African American church groups fought for women's suffrage, prohibition, and participated in the Civil Rights Movement. Despite all of their work, both inside and outside churches, very few African American women hold leadership positions in churches, even in segregated churches. == The 21st century ==

Black Lives Matter The Black Lives Matter movement has prompted responses from many churches in the United States. According to Mark Oppenheimer, the United Church of Christ, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), and the American Baptist Church have spoken out in support of the movement; however, more conservative denominations have been more hesitant to do so. Oppenheimer says that many evangelical denominations are supportive of conservative political candidates, due to their positions on other issues, and that the liberal association of the Black Lives Matter movement makes them hesitant to support it. During the George Floyd protests in June 2020, Pope Francis spoke out against what he described as ongoing racism in the United States. Racially-motivated violence One way in which racism has manifested itself in churches is through the commission of violent attacks. One of the most notable church shootings took place on June 17, 2015, in Charleston, South Carolina, by a 21-year old white supremacist. The Charleston shooting resulted in the murder of nine African Americans after seventy rounds were fired at the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church, a primarily black church. According to scholars Kevin Keenan and Anthony Greene, the place where an attack is targeted is instrumental in causing fear, implying that the shooter's choice to target one of the oldest black churches in the United States was intended for maximum effect. For instance, the town and the church's community were deeply impacted as they mourned the lives they had lost, including Rev. Clementa C. Pinckney, an activist, politician, and the church's pastor. The Charleston shooting was one of multiple attacks from white supremacists that took place in the following years. In fact, according to the Center for Strategic and International Studies, white supremacists were behind 67 percent of the 61 attacks that took place in the United States during the first eight months of 2020. Another attack against African-American churches occurred during the spring of 2019. Holden Matthews burned three black churches in Louisiana to the ground over the course of ten days. Matthews was sentenced to 25 years in federal prison and owes over $2 million in total to the three churches he destroyed. Acknowledging the existence of racial divides Church leaders are beginning to acknowledge the existence of racial divides within churches. In December 2018, the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary released a report addressing their role in perpetuating racism in the Baptist church, specifically in the South. The report, which followed the Southern Baptist Convention’s 1995 public apology to African Americans for their participation in systemic racism, documented the specific instances when racism played a role in the denomination's rise. However, in the past two decades, increased numbers of individuals from other racial groups have joined predominantly white congregations, allowing for more diversity in congregations across the United States. Overall, this does not guarantee that the churches in question consist of increasingly diverse congregations. Instead, the percentage of African American churchgoers slightly increased while the percentage of Hispanic churchgoers decreased slightly. == See also ==