Revolt of Abd al-Salam

Sokoto Jihad and division of authority During the late 18th century, a religious movement began in the Kingdom of Gobir, led by the local Fulani scholar Shehu Usman dan Fodio, who sought to reform Islam in the region. He accused the Muslim rulers of the Central Sudan of rampant syncretism and urged them to embrace 'true' Islam. His revivalist movement eventually grew in size, attracting scholars from across Hausaland, which alarmed the Gobir ruling class. Among these followers was Mikhail dan Ibrahim, a ba-Are Hausa scholar with a following of his own. Around the 1790s, he became one of Usman's students, setting up camp near the Shehu's house at Degel. Mikhail called this camp "Dār as-salām" ("House of Peace") and subsequently changed his name to Abd al-Salam ("Slave of Peace"). In 1803/4, Sarkin Gobir Yunfa sent an expedition to capture Abd al-Salam. He managed to escape, but the Gobir force sacked Gimbana, and, on their return to Gobir, the army was intercepted by Usman's followers, who forced them to release the captives, much to Yunfa's annoyance. This affair is often cited as the incident that sparked the jihad. Soon after, Yunfa ordered Usman out of Gobir, which began Usman's hijra to Gudu in February 1804, with the first battles of his jihad following soon after. Described by Muhammad Bello as the leader of his Arewa people, Abd al-Salam was one of the few prominent non-Fulani commanders in Usman's jihad. With Yunfa's death during the final siege of his capital, Alkalawa, the jihad ended in 1808. By that time, Usman was recognised as the ''Amir al-mu'minin'' (Commander of the Faithful) by much of the region's Muslims. Around 1812, Usman divided the authority of his vast Caliphate, which now expanded beyond the frontiers of Hausaland, among his leading commanders. The eastern territories fell to Muhammad Bello, the western parts to his brother Abdullahi, the north under Ali Jedo, while the south was divided between Muhammad Bukhari and Abd al-Salam, who was assigned seven villages in Gwandu, including Sabiyel (in Aliero today), to supervise. Dissatisfied with his share, Abd al-Salam preparing for revolt, and contacted groups discontented with the Caliphate, including Kebbawa rebels and his own Arewa people. However, his plans were discovered, and he was transferred to Sokoto under Bello's supervision. He was allowed to build a walled town nearby at Kware, which later grew in wealth and size. Discontent under Caliph Muhammad Bello When Usman died in 1817, his son and successor Muhammad Bello had to deal with several revolts against the Caliphate. Among them was Abd al-Salam's, who, from Kware, made contacts with enemies of the Caliphate, particularly among the aggrieved Hausawa and dhimmis. == Tawaye ==

At some point during their correspondence, Bello received word that Abd al-Salam had declared a tawaye (revolt in Hausa). In Sard al-kalam, Bello accused Abd al-Salam of allying with the Emir of Kore in raiding several Fulani villages and towns. Bello then summoned Ali Jedo, Commander of the Army (Amir al-jaish), and dispatched raiding parties of his own. Battles and skirmishes erupted in various areas around the Sokoto region as both sides sent raiding parties to towns and plantations. Caliph Bello then dispatched three letters. The first was sent to Abd al-Salam, offering a peace deal to avoid fitna, proposing that, if accepted, Abd al-Salam would be permitted to choose any land in Zamfara and live there peacefully without interference from Sokoto. If rejected, Bello warned that "the sin of those with you and of those with us regarding what happens is upon you." The second letter was addressed to "al-Bukhari (Abd al-Salam's son); his mother, Umm al-Khayr; and all the Muslim women." In it, Bello reiterated the peace offer and emphasised that the conflict was not with him or his family. In the final letter, directed to Abd al-Salam's community, Bello claimed that his intentions were not to harm them. He warned that if Abd al-Salam did not move away from Sokoto, Bello's army would attack, urging them instead to emigrate with their families. However, Bello assured them that if Abd al-Salam accepted the peace offer, he would not interfere with their activities. He then ended the letter with: "We have already spread spies and sent [messages] to troops in all regions. This is our state. Peace." Although he was said to have received the letters, Abd al-Salam did not respond to Bello. The Emir of Aïr, along with other scholars, attempted to avert further hostilities but was unsuccessful. Around November 1817, Bello sent an army to Kware, but it was defeated. His subsequent strategy involved sending repeated raiding parties, which proved highly effective. Soon, this began to take its toll on Abd al-Salam's large army. The skirmishes continued on until 5 January 1818, when Bello mustered a large force, including reinforcements from the Emir of Aïr, under the command of Ali Jedo and Muhammad Namoda. Abd al-Salam also received reinforcements, and his army now comprised rebels from Arewa, Gobir, Zamfara, and Kebbi, as well as forces from Kore. Bello's army marched on the fortified town of Kware, which was swiftly taken according to Bello. The town was sacked, and its remaining inhabitants, who fled toward Zamfara, were pursued and killed. During the pursuit, Abd al-Salam was hit by an arrow but reportedly managed to flee to Bakura in Zamfara, where he died of his wounds three days later. == Aftermath ==

There a number of Hausa gibes and sayings against Abd al-Salam. For example: In the same year, Emir of Gwandu Abdullahi permitted Muhammad Bukhari, Abd al-Salam's son, to establish the town of Jega, near Abd al-Salam's old town of Gimbana. == Sard al-kalam ==

Much of what is known about Abd al-Salam and his revolt comes from Muhammad Bello's ''Sard al-kalam fi ma jara bayn-na wa-bayn 'Abd al-Salam ("The dialogue that passed between me and Abd al-Salam"). Bello appears to quote in full letters from Abd al-Salam highly critical of trends in Sokoto, which, according to Murray Last, "give the book a tone of authenticity." Copies of the book, originally written in Arabic, are widely available in Nigeria, including at the Library of Bayero University, Kano A Hausa translation was published in the first volume of Labarun Hausawa da Makwabtansu'' (Zaria, 1932) by R M East. In 1986, published the Arabic text and a German translation. Using manuscripts held at the National Archives of Nigeria in Kaduna, Kariya Kota edited and published the Arabic text and an English translation in 2018. == Notes ==