Foundation and expansion under Maximilian I On 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the
Electorate of Bavaria passed to
Charles Theodore, the
Elector Palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the
Electoral Palatinate, to which the duchies of
Jülich and
Berg had been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. In 1793, the
French Revolutionary Army overran the Palatinate; in 1795, the
French, under
Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to
Munich — where they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals — and laid siege to
Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent the war or to resist the invasion, fled to
Saxony, leaving a regency, the members of which signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution (7 September 1796). Between the French and the
Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Before the death of Charles Theodore (16 February 1799), the Austrians had again occupied the country, in preparation for renewing the war with France.
Maximilian IV Joseph (of
Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-powerful minister,
Maximilian von Montgelas, were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian finances, and the fact that the
Bavarian Army was scattered and disorganized, left him helpless in the hands of Austria; on 2 December 1800, the Bavarian Army was involved in the Austrian defeat at
Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the
Treaty of Lunéville (9 February 1801), Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of
Zweibrücken and
Jülich. In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French Republic; he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph, and on 24 August, a separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris. The 1805
Peace of Pressburg allowed Maximilian to raise Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian proclaimed himself king on 1 January 1806 as Maximilian I. The king still served as an elector until Bavaria seceded from the
Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806, joining the
Confederation of the Rhine. The
Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806. The new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of
Napoleonic France. The kingdom was forced to give Napoleon conscripts for the
Peninsular War,
faced war with
Austria in 1809 and from 1810 to 1814 lost territory to
Württemberg and
Italy. In 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavaria's first written constitution. Over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris' wishes. During the
French invasion of Russia in 1812, about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action. With the
Treaty of Ried of 8 October 1813, Bavaria left the Confederation of the Rhine and agreed to join the
Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in exchange for a guarantee of her continued sovereign and independent status. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by Crown Prince
Ludwig and by Marshal
Karl Philipp von Wrede. With the
Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 ended the
German Campaign with the Coalition nations as the victors, in a complete failure for the French, although they achieved a minor victory when a Bavarian army attempted to block the retreat of the French
Grande Armée at
Hanau. With the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814, Bavaria lost the territories it had gained from Austria, but was compensated for some of its losses, receiving new territories such as the
Grand Duchy of Würzburg, the
Grand Duchy of Frankfurt and parts of the
Grand Duchy of Hesse. Finally, the
Rhenish Palatinate was given to Bavaria by the
Treaty of Munich. It was the second largest and second most powerful state south of the
Main, behind only Austria. In Germany as a whole, it ranked third behind
Prussia and Austria. Between 1799 and 1817, the leading minister Count Montgelas followed a strict policy of modernisation and laid the foundations of administrative structures that survived even the monarchy and are (in their core) valid until today. On 1 February 1817, Montgelas was dismissed and Bavaria entered a new era of constitutional reform.
Constitution On 26 May 1818, Bavaria's second constitution was proclaimed. The constitution established a bicameral Parliament (
Landtag). The upper house (
Kammer der Reichsräte, meaning "House of Councillors") comprised the aristocracy and noblemen, including the royal princes, holders of the
crown offices, archbishops, members of the
Mediatized Houses in Bavaria and hereditary and lifelong nominees of the crown. The lower house ("Kammer der Abgeordneten", meaning "House of Representatives"), would include representatives of landowners, the three universities, clergy (Catholic and Protestant), the towns and the peasants. Without the consent of both houses, no law could be passed and no tax could be levied. The rights of
Protestants were safeguarded in the constitution with articles supporting the equality of all religions, despite opposition by supporters of the Roman Catholic Church. The initial constitution almost proved disastrous for the monarchy, with controversies such as the army having to swear allegiance to the new constitution. The monarchy appealed to Prussia and the Austria for advice; the two refused to take action on Bavaria's behalf, but the disturbances lessened and the state stabilized with the accession of
Ludwig I to the throne following the death of Maximilian in 1825. Within the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Palatinate enjoyed a special legal and administrative position, as the Bavarian government maintained substantial achievements of the French period. The German historian Heiner Haan described the special status of the Palatinate within Bavaria as a relation of
Hauptstaat (main state, i.e. Bavaria) and
Nebenstaat (alongside state, i.e. the Palatinate).
Ludwig I, Maximilian II and the Revolutions '' by
Joseph Karl Stieler, 1826 of Ludwig I In 1825, Ludwig I ascended the throne of Bavaria. Under Ludwig, the arts flourished in Bavaria, and Ludwig personally ordered and financially assisted the creation of many
neoclassical buildings and architecture across Bavaria. Ludwig also increased Bavaria's pace towards industrialization under his reign. In foreign affairs under Ludwig's rule, Bavaria supported the Greeks during the
Greek War of Independence with his second son,
Otto being elected
King of Greece in 1832. As for politics, initial reforms advocated by Ludwig were both liberal and reform-oriented. However, after the
Revolutions of 1830, Ludwig turned to conservative reaction. The
Hambacher Fest in 1832 showed the discontent of the population with high taxes and censorship. Bavaria joined the
Zollverein in 1834. In 1835, the first
German railway was constructed in Bavaria, between the cities of
Fürth and
Nuremberg. ,
Munich Residence In 1837, the Roman Catholic-supported clerical movement, the
Ultramontanes, came to power in the Bavarian parliament and began a campaign of reform to the constitution, which removed civil rights that had earlier been granted to Protestants, as well as enforcing censorship and forbidding the free discussion of internal politics. This regime was short-lived due to the demand by the Ultramontanes of the naturalization of Ludwig I's Irish mistress,
Lola Montez, a notorious courtesan and dancer, which was resented by Ludwig, and the Ultramontanes were pushed out. During the
Revolutions of 1848, Ludwig abdicated on 20 March 1848 in favour of his eldest son,
Maximilian II. The revolutions also brought amendments to the constitution, including changes to the lower house of the Landtag with equal suffrage for every male who paid a direct tax. Maximilian II responded to the demands of the people for a united German state by attending the
Frankfurt Parliament, which intended to create such a state. However, when Maximilian II rejected the
Frankfurt Constitution in 1849, there was an
uprising in the Bavarian Palatinate under
Joseph Martin Reichard, which was put down with the support of Prussian forces. However Maximilian II stood alongside Bavaria's ally, the Austrian Empire, in opposition to Austria's enemy, Prussia. This position was resented by many Bavarian citizens, who wanted a united Germany. In the end Prussia declined the crown offered by the Frankfurt Parliament as the proposed constitution of a German state was perceived to be too liberal and not in Prussia's interests. In the aftermath of the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament, Prussia and Austria continued to debate over which monarchy had the inherent right to rule Germany. A dispute between Austria and the Elector of
Hesse-Kassel was used by Austria and its allies (including Bavaria) to promote the isolation of Prussia in German political affairs. This diplomatic insult almost led to war when Austria, Bavaria, and other allies moved troops through Bavaria towards Hesse-Kassel in 1850. However, Prussia backed down to Austria and accepted its political leadership of Germany. This event was known as the
Punctation of Olmütz but also known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz" by Prussia. This event solidified the Bavarian kingdom's alliance with Austria against Prussia. When the project to unite the German middle-sized powers under Bavarian leadership against Prussia and Austria (the so-called
Trias) failed, Minister-President
von der Pfordten resigned in 1859. Attempts by Prussia to reorganize the loose
German Confederation were opposed by Bavaria and Austria, with Bavaria taking part in its own discussions with Austria and other allies in 1863, in Frankfurt, without Prussia attending.
Austro-Prussian War , who left office following Bavaria's defeat in the war in 1866 In 1864, Maximilian II died early, and his eighteen-year-old son,
Ludwig II, became King of Bavaria as tensions between Austria and Prussia escalated steadily. Prussian
Minister-President Otto von Bismarck, recognizing the immediate likelihood of war, tried to keep Bavaria neutral. Ludwig II refused Bismarck's offers and continued Bavaria's alliance with Austria. In 1866, the
Austro-Prussian War began. Bavaria and most of the south German states allied with Austria, but contributed far less to the war against Prussia. Prussia quickly defeated the
Kingdom of Hanover, then won the
Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866) against Austria, which sued for peace shortly afterward. The states of the German Confederation had not agreed on a common strategy in the war. Their separate armies were therefore defeated in succession by Prussia. The
Bavarian Army was defeated in
Lower Franconia at the
Battle of Kissingen (10 July 1866).
Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria took command, but the Bavarians were decisively beaten at
Roßbrunn (26 July 1866). Austria was defeated, and the German Confederation was dissolved, ending Austria's influence over the lesser German states. Bavaria lost
Gersfeld,
Bad Orb and
Kaulsdorf to Prussia; former two became part of the new
Province of Hesse-Nassau whereas the latter became part of
Province of Saxony. From this time, Bavaria steadily progressed into Prussia's sphere of influence.
Ludwig II and the German Empire print of
Castle Neuschwanstein. This castle was designed and constructed during the reign of Ludwig II and remains a major tourist attraction in Bavaria. With Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the northern German states quickly unified into the
North German Confederation, with the Prussian king leading the state. Bavaria's previous inhibitions towards Prussia changed, along with those of many of the south German states, after French Emperor
Napoleon III began speaking of
France's need for "compensation" from its loss in 1814 and included the Bavarian-held
Palatinate as part of its territorial claims. Ludwig II joined an alliance with Prussia in 1870 against France, which was seen by Germans as the greatest enemy to a united Germany. At the same time, Bavaria increased its political, legal, and trade ties with the North German Confederation. In 1870, war erupted between France and Prussia in the
Franco-Prussian War. The
Bavarian Army was sent under the command of the Prussian Crown Prince
Frederick against the
French Army. With France's defeat and humiliation against the combined German forces, it was Ludwig II who proposed that Prussian King
Wilhelm I be proclaimed German Emperor (
Kaiser) of the new
German Empire (), which occurred in 1871 at the German-occupied
Palace of Versailles, France. The territories of the
German Empire were declared, which included the states of the North German Confederation and all of the south German states, with the major exception of Austria. The empire also
annexed the formerly French territory of
Alsace-Lorraine, due in large part to Ludwig's desire to move the French frontier away from the Palatinate. Bavaria's entry into the German Empire changed from jubilation over France's defeat to dismay shortly afterward because of the direction Germany took under the new
German Chancellor and Prussian Prime Minister,
Otto von Bismarck. The Bavarian delegation under
Count Otto von Bray-Steinburg had secured a privileged status for the Kingdom of Bavaria within the German Empire (
Reservatrechte). The Kingdom of Bavaria was even able to retain its own diplomatic body and its own army, which would fall under Prussian command only in times of war. After Bavaria's entry into the empire, Ludwig II became increasingly detached from Bavaria's political affairs and spent vast amounts of money on personal projects, such as the construction of a number of fairytale castles and palaces, the most famous being the
Wagnerian-style
Neuschwanstein Castle. Ludwig used his personal wealth to finance these projects, and not state funds, and the construction projects landed him deeply in debt. These debts caused much concern among Bavaria's political elite, who sought to persuade Ludwig to cease his building; he refused, and relations between the government's ministers and the crown deteriorated. At last, in 1886, the crisis came to a head. A medical commission appointed by the cabinet declared Ludwig insane and thus incapable of reigning. His uncle, Prince
Luitpold, was appointed as
regent. A day after Ludwig's deposition, the king died mysteriously after asking the commission's chief psychiatrist to go on a walk with him along
Lake Starnberg (then called Lake Würm). Ludwig and the psychiatrist were found dead, floating in the lake. The official autopsy listed cause of death as suicide by drowning, but some sources claim that no water was found in Ludwig's lungs. While these claims could be explained by
dry drowning, they have also led to
conspiracy theories of political assassination.
Regency and institutional reform The crown passed to Ludwig's brother
Otto. However, Otto had a long history of mental illness and had been placed under medical supervision three years earlier. The duties of head of state actually rested in the hands of Prince Luitpold, who continued to serve as regent for Otto. During the regency of Prince-Regent Luitpold, from 1886 to 1912, relations between Bavaria and Prussia remained cold, with Bavarians remembering the anti-Catholic agenda of Bismarck's
Kulturkampf, as well as Prussia's strategic dominance over the empire. Bavaria protested Prussian dominance over Germany and snubbed the Prussian-born German Emperor,
Wilhelm II, in 1900, by forbidding the flying of any other flag other than the Bavarian flag on public buildings for the emperor's birthday, but this was swiftly modified afterwards, allowing the German imperial flag to be hung beside the Bavarian flag. The Catholic, conservative Patriotic Party founded in 1868 became the leading party in the
Bavarian Landtag (Parliament). In 1887, its name was changed to
Bavarian Centre. In 1893, the
Social Democrats were elected to the parliament. From 1903, university education was also possible for
female students. Electoral reforms changed the elections of the parliament from
indirect to
direct elections in 1906. With the Centre politician
Georg von Hertling the Prince Regent appointed a government headed by a representative of the Landtag's majority for the first time in 1912. Luitpold's years as regent were marked by tremendous artistic and cultural activity in Bavaria where they are known as the
Prinzregentenjahre ("The Prince Regent Years"). In 1912, Luitpold died, and his son, Prince Regent Ludwig, took over as regent. By then, it had long been apparent that Otto would never be able to reign, and sentiment grew for Ludwig to become king in his own right. On 6 November, a day after the Landtag passed a law allowing him to do so, Ludwig ended the regency, deposed Otto and declared himself King of Bavaria as
Ludwig III. The
Prinzregentenzeit ("prince's regent's time"), as the regency of Luitpold is often called, was an era of the gradual transfer of Bavarian interests behind those of the German Empire. In connection with the unhappy end of the preceding rule of King Ludwig II this break in the Bavarian monarchy looked even stronger. Finally, the constitutional amendment of 1913 brought the determining break in the continuity of the king's rule in the opinion of historians, particularly as this change had been granted by the Landtag as a House of Representatives and meant therefore indirectly the first step toward full parliamentary government. Today the connection of these two developments is regarded as a main cause for the unspectacular end of the Bavarian kingdom without opposition in the course of the November revolution of 1918. However the course of his 26-year regency Luitpold knew to overcome, by modesty, ability and popularity, the initial uneasiness of his subjects. These prince regent's years were transfigured, finally — above all in the retrospect – to a golden age of Bavaria, even if one mourned the "fairy tale king" Ludwig II, which happens in a folkloric-nostalgic manner till this day.
Military autonomy With the establishment of the German Empire, a series of conventions brought the bulk of the various state military forces directly under the administration of the Prussian War Ministry. Bavaria however maintained a degree of autonomy in peacetime, with its own two (later three) army corps remaining outside the Prussian order of battle. The Bavarian infantry and cavalry regiments retained their historic light blue and green uniforms, distinctive from the Prussian model adopted throughout most of the army. The individual Bavarian soldier swore an oath of loyalty to King Ludwig, though in wartime this pledge of obedience was extended to Kaiser Wilhelm as supreme commander. In July 1914, the Bavarian Army numbered 92,400 or 11 percent of the total
Imperial German Army.
World War I and the end of the kingdom (Lemberg), 1915 during World War I In 1914, a clash of alliances occurred over
Austria-Hungary's
invasion of Serbia following the assassination of Austrian
Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a
Bosnian Serb militant. Germany went to the side of its former rival-turned-ally, Austria-Hungary, and declared war on
France and
Russia. Following the German invasion of neutral
Belgium the
United Kingdom declared war on Germany. Initially, in Bavaria and all across Germany, many recruits flocked enthusiastically to the Army. At the outbreak of the war, King Ludwig III sent an official dispatch to Berlin, to express Bavaria's solidarity. Later Ludwig even claimed annexations for Bavaria (Alsace and the city of
Antwerp in
Belgium, to receive access to the sea). His hidden agenda was to maintain the balance of power between Prussia and Bavaria within the German Empire after a victory. Over time, with a stalemated and bloody war on the western front, Bavarians, like many Germans, grew weary of the conflict. In 1917, the Bavarian Prime Minister
Georg von Hertling became German Chancellor and Prime Minister of Prussia;
Otto Ritter von Dandl became the new Prime Minister of Bavaria. Accused of showing blind loyalty to Prussia, Ludwig III became increasingly unpopular during the war. In 1918, the kingdom attempted to negotiate a separate peace with the allies but failed. By 1918, civil unrest was spreading across Bavaria and Germany, Bavarian defiance to Prussian hegemony and Bavarian separatism being key motivators. On 7 November 1918, Ludwig fled from the
Munich Residenz with his family due to the outbreak of the
German Revolution. He was the first of the monarchs in the German Empire to be deposed; only days later, the Kaiser abdicated the German throne. Ludwig took up residence in Austria for what was intended to be a temporary stay. On 12 November, he issued the
Anif declaration, declaring that under the circumstances, he was "in no position to lead the government." Accordingly, he released his soldiers and officials from their oath to him. Although he never formally abdicated, the socialist-led government of
Kurt Eisner took Ludwig's declaration as such and declared the
House of Wittelsbach deposed. With this, the 700 year rule of the Wittelsbach dynasty came to an end, and the former Kingdom of Bavaria became the
People's State of Bavaria. The funeral of Ludwig III in 1921 was feared or hoped to spark a
restoration of the monarchy. Despite the abolition of the monarchy, the former king was laid to rest in front of the former royal family, the Bavarian government, military personnel, and an estimated 100,000 spectators, in the style of royal funerals.
Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria did not wish to use the occasion of the passing of his father to attempt to re-establish the monarchy by force, preferring to do so by legal means. Cardinal
Michael von Faulhaber,
Archbishop of Munich, in his funeral speech, made a clear commitment to the monarchy while Rupprecht only declared that he had stepped into his birthright. == Geography, administrative regions and population ==