Unresolved Israeli annexations .
East Jerusalem During the 1967
Six-Day War,
Israel captured
East Jerusalem, a part of the
West Bank, from
Jordan. While
Jordan had annexed the West Bank in 1950, it was considered an illegal occupation and Jordan was recognized as the legal sovereign by the United Kingdom and possibly Pakistan. On 31 July 1988, Jordan relinquished this claim. It has remained occupied until the present day. On 27 June 1967, Israel unilaterally extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem and some of the surrounding area, incorporating about 70 square kilometers of territory into the Jerusalem Municipality. Although at the time, Israel informed the
United Nations that its measures constituted administrative and municipal integration rather than annexation. Later rulings by the Israeli Supreme Court indicated that East Jerusalem had become part of Israel. In 1980, Israel passed the
Jerusalem Law as part of its
Basic Law, which declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel. In other words, Israel purported to annex East Jerusalem. The annexation was declared null and void by
United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolutions 252, 267, 271, 298, 465, 476 and 478. Jewish neighborhoods have since been built in East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews have since also settled in Arab neighborhoods there, though some Jews may have returned from their 1948 expulsion after the
Battle for Jerusalem. Only Costa Rica recognized Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem, and those countries who maintained embassies in Israel did not move them to Jerusalem. The
United States Congress passed the
Jerusalem Embassy Act, which recognizes Jerusalem as the united capital of Israel and requires the relocation of the U.S. embassy there in 1995. The act included a provision permitting the president to delay its implementation due to national security concerns. This waiver was used by presidents
Clinton,
Bush,
Obama, and
Trump, but was allowed to expire in 2019.
West Bank excluding East Jerusalem Law professor Omar M. Dajani and others discuss de facto annexation (also referred to as "creeping annexation"). The debate considers whether, in all the circumstances, there is a pattern of behavior sufficient to conclude that Israel is in violation of the international prohibition against annexation, even absent a formal declaration.
Golan Heights Israel occupied two-thirds of the
Golan Heights from
Syria during the 1967 Six-Day War, and subsequently built Jewish settlements in the area. In 1981, Israel passed the
Golan Heights Law, which extended Israeli "law, jurisdiction, and administration" to the area, including the
Shebaa farms area. This declaration was declared "null and void and without international legal effect" by
United Nations Security Council Resolution 497. The
Federated States of Micronesia recognized the annexation and in 2019, the United States joined in recognition. The vast majority of
Syrian Druze in
Majdal Shams, the largest Syrian village in the Golan, have held onto their Syrian passports. When Israel annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, 95% of the Majdal Shams residents refused Israeli citizenship, and are still firmly of that opinion, in spite of the
Syrian Civil War. On 29 November 2012, the
United Nations General Assembly reaffirmed it was "[d]eeply concerned that Israel has not withdrawn from the Syrian Golan, which has been under occupation since 1967, contrary to the relevant Security Council and General Assembly resolutions," and "[s]tress[ed] the illegality of the Israeli settlement construction and other activities in the occupied Syrian Golan since 1967." The General Assembly then voted by majority, 110 in favour to 6 against (Canada, Israel, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, United States), with 59 abstentions, to demand a full Israeli withdrawal from the Syrian Golan Heights. In response,
United Nations Secretary-General
António Guterres stated "the status of Golan has not changed", and the decision received worldwide condemnation with European members of the United Nations Security Council noting "we raise our strong concerns about the broader consequences of recognizing illegal annexation and also about broader regional consequences" and that "annexation of territory by force is prohibited under international law", adding that unilateral changes to borders violate "the rules-based international order and the UN Charter".
Moroccan annexation of Western Sahara in 1976 The annexation of Western Sahara occurred in two stages: 1976 and 1979. In 1975, and following the
Madrid Accords between
Mauritania,
Morocco, and
Spain, the last Spanish troops withdrew from the territory and ceded the administration to Mauritania and Morocco. On 14 April 1976, the two countries annexed it between themselves via the Western Sahara partition agreement. This was challenged by an
independentist movement, the
Polisario Front that waged a
guerrilla war against both Mauritania and Morocco. On 14 August 1979, after a military
putsch, Mauritania renounced all territorial claims to Western Sahara and withdrew its troops. This prompted Morocco to extend its annexation to formerly Mauritanian-controlled areas. A
United Nations peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and as of mid-2012, the UN is holding direct negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario front to reach a solution to the conflict. The
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a
partially recognized state that has claimed the entire region since 1976.
Russian annexations with the
Russian flag flying after
annexation by Russia (14 June 2015) In March 2014,
Russia annexed the
Crimean Peninsula, which had been a part of
Ukraine since 1991 and administers the territory as two
federal subjects – the
Republic of Crimea and the
federal city of
Sevastopol. The UN General Assembly considers the Russian possession of Crimea and Sevastopol to be an "attempted annexation" and the Russian Federation an "occupying power". Russia rejects the view that this was an annexation and regards it as an accession to the Russian Federation of a
state that had just declared independence from Ukraine following a
disputed referendum, and considers it
secession as a result of
irredentism. A term often used in Russia to describe these events is "re-unification" (воссоединение) to highlight the fact that Crimea was a part of the
Russian Empire from 1783 to 1917, and part of the
Russian SFSR from 1921 to 1954.
Few states recognize this view. Ukraine considers Crimea and Sevastopol its own territory, and oversees the
Crimea Platform, an international diplomatic initiative to restore its sovereignty. In September 2022, during the
Russo-Ukrainian war, the
Russian Federation, following
referendums, declared the
annexation of territories in southern and eastern Ukraine. As a result,
Russia claimed sovereignty over the territories of five
Ukrainian oblasts –
Luhansk,
Donetsk,
Zaporizhzhia,
Kherson and
Mykolaiv – and recognised as its
federal subjects Donetsk People's Republic,
Luhansk People's Republic,
Zaporizhzhia and
Kherson Oblasts.
Subsequently withdrawn Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea In 1952, Ethiopian Emperor
Haile Selassie orchestrated a
federation with Eritrea. He dissolved it in 1962 and annexed
Eritrea, resulting in the
Eritrean War of Independence.
Mauritanian annexation of the southern third of Western Sahara In 1979, Mauritania abandoned its claim to
the southern third of Western Sahara, disestablishing the short-lived province of
Western Tiris.
Jordanian annexation of the West Bank The part of former
Mandatory Palestine occupied by Jordan during the
1948 Arab–Israeli War was renamed "the
West Bank". It was annexed to Jordan in 1950 at the request of a Palestinian delegation. It had been questioned, however, how representative that delegation was, and at the insistence of the
Arab League, Jordan was considered a trustee only. Only
Pakistan and the
United Kingdom recognized the annexation by Jordan. It was not condemned by the United Nations Security Council and it remained under Jordanian rule until 1967 when it was
occupied by Israel. Jordan did not officially relinquish its claim to rule the West Bank until 1988. Israel has not taken the step of annexing the territory (except for the part of it that was made part of the Jerusalem Municipality). Rather, there were enacted a complex (and highly controversial) system of
military government decrees in effect applying Israeli law in many spheres to
Israeli settlements.
Indonesian annexation of East Timor annexed
East Timor in 1976 Following an Indonesian invasion in 1975,
East Timor (Timor-Leste) was annexed by Indonesia and was known as
Timor Timur. It was regarded by Indonesia as the country's 27th province, but this was never recognised by the
United Nations. The people of East Timor resisted Indonesian forces in a prolonged guerrilla campaign. Following
a referendum held in 1999 under a
UN-sponsored agreement between the two sides, the people of East Timor rejected the offer of autonomy within Indonesia. East Timor achieved independence in 2002 and is now officially known as
Timor-Leste.
Iraqi annexation of Kuwait i and
Saudi Arabian flags as they celebrate the
reversal of the
annexation of Kuwait by
Iraq (28 February 1991) After being allied with
Iraq during the
Iran–Iraq War (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from
Iran),
Kuwait was
invaded and
annexed by
Iraq (under
Saddam Hussein) in August 1990. Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for "economic warfare" Kuwait had waged through
slant drilling into Iraq's oil supplies. The monarchy was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed. United States president
George H. W. Bush ultimately condemned Iraq's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. Authorized by United Nations Security Council resolutions, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the
Gulf War to reinstate the
Kuwaiti Emir. Iraq's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today.
Subsequently legalized Chinese annexation of Tibet and approximate line of
communist advance in February 1950 The rule of the
Qing dynasty over
Tibet was established after a
Qing expedition force defeated the
Dzungar Khanate which had occupied Tibet in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The
Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor issued in 1912 provided the legal basis for the
Republic of China (ROC) to inherit all Qing territories, including Tibet. However, the ROC had no effective control over Tibet from 1912 to 1951; In the opinion of the Chinese government, this condition does not represent Tibet's
de jure independence as many other parts of China also enjoyed
de facto independence when the Chinese state was torn by
warlordism,
Japanese invasion, and
civil war. Tibet came under the control of the
People's Republic of China (PRC) after attempts by the
Government of Tibet to gain international recognition, efforts to modernize its
military, negotiations between the Government of Tibet and the PRC, and
a military conflict in the
Chamdo area of western
Kham in October 1950. Many analysts consider the incorporation of Tibet into the PRC an annexation. If the actions of 1950 constituted an annexation, it was subsequently legalized by the
Seventeen Point Agreement by the Government of Tibet in October 1951. From 1959 onwards, claims were made that this agreement was signed under pressure; academics have debated this ever since, but Tibet is recognized internationally as part of China.
Indian annexations Hyderabad After the withdrawal of the British Empire from India, each of the Princely States of India and Pakistan that had been protectorates of the British Empire were given the choice of either 1. opting to join India, 2. opting to join Pakistan or 3. resume their former status as fully independent states. While most of the princely states opted to join either Pakistan or India,
Hyderabad State elected instead to resume full independence. Following the expiration of ultimatums from India, the Indian military launched its Operation Polo on 13 September 1948 and invaded Hyderabad. After conquering most of Hyderabad in five days of warfare, the Nizam signed a treaty on 18 September 1948 that saw Hyderabad annexed by India.
Goa, Daman and Diu in 1961 In 1954, the residents of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli, a Portuguese
enclave within India, ended Portuguese rule with the help of nationalist volunteers. From 1954 to 1961, the territory enjoyed
de facto independence. In 1961, the territory was merged with India after its government signed an agreement with the Indian government. In 1961,
India and
Portugal engaged in a brief military conflict over Portuguese-controlled
Goa and
Daman and Diu. India invaded and conquered the areas after 36 hours of fighting, thus ending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in India. The action was viewed in India as a liberation of historically Indian territory; in Portugal, however, the loss of both enclaves was seen as a national tragedy. A condemnation of the action by the United Nations Security Council was vetoed by the
Soviet Union. Goa and Daman and Diu were incorporated into India.
Portugal recognized India's sovereignty over Goa in a treaty in December 1974.
Sikkim was realized in the 1960s during the
Sino-Indian War.
Map in Polish. During the
British colonial rule in India, Sikkim had an ambiguous status, as an Indian
princely state or as an Indian
protectorate. Prior to Indian independence,
Jawaharlal Nehru, acting as the leader of Executive Council, agreed that Sikkim would not be treated as an Indian state. Between 1947 and 1950, Sikkim enjoyed
de facto independence. However, Indian independence spurred popular political movements in Sikkim and the ruling
Chogyal came under pressure. He requested Indian help to quell the uprising, which was offered. Subsequently, in 1950, India signed a treaty with Sikkim bringing it under its
suzerainty, and controlling its external affairs, defence, diplomacy and communications. A state council was established in 1955 to allow for constitutional government under the Sikkimese monarch. Meanwhile, trouble was brewing in the state after the
Sikkim National Congress demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the
Nepalese. In the 1967
Nathu La and Cho La clashes, Chinese border attacks were repulsed. In 1973, riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. The Chogyal was proving to be extremely unpopular with the people. In 1975, the
Kazi (prime minister) appealed to the Indian Parliament for a change in Sikkim's status so that it could become a state of India. In April, the
Indian Army moved into Sikkim, seizing the city of
Gangtok and disarming the Palace Guards. A referendum was held in which 97.5% of the voting people (59% of the people entitled to vote) voted to join the Indian Union. A few weeks later, on 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became the 22nd state of the Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished.
Indonesian annexation of Western New Guinea officially became part of Indonesia in 1969 Western New Guinea officially became part of Indonesia through the
Act of Free Choice in 1969, supervised by the UN. Based on the New York Agreement (1962) between Indonesia and the Netherlands, the UN held the Act of Free Choice to determine whether Western New Guinea would join Indonesia or not. Through a deliberation of representatives, the majority voted to join, and this result was accepted by the UN General Assembly in a session in November 1969. This decision was implicitly considered to recognize Western New Guinea as part of Indonesia, because the General Assembly did not reject the report of the UN Secretary General regarding the implementation of Act of Free Choice. West Papua is the western half of the island of
New Guinea and smaller islands to its west. The separatist
Free Papua Movement (OPM) has engaged in a small-scale yet bloody conflict with the Indonesian military since the 1960s.
North Vietnamese annexation of South Vietnam billboard marking the 30th anniversary of the reunification of the country in 1975 North Vietnam
de facto annexed
South Vietnam following the
military defeat and
effective dissolution of its government system and
military on 30 April 1975.
Vietnam was officially reunited one year later as the merger of the
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam and
North Vietnam.
Other Queen Maud Land One example of a claimed annexation after
World War II is the
Kingdom of Norway's southward expansion of the
dependent territory Queen Maud Land. On most maps, there had been an unclaimed area between Queen Maud Land's borders of 1939 and the
South Pole until 12 June 2015, when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area.
British annexation of Rockall in 1955 On 18 September 1955 at precisely 10:16 am,
Rockall was declared officially annexed by the
British Crown when
Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott
RN,
Sergeant Brian Peel
RM,
Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian
naturalist and former Royal Marine), were deposited on the island by a
Royal Navy helicopter from (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). The team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted the
Union Flag to stake the UK's claim. However, any effect of this annexation on valuable maritime rights claims under
UNCLOS in the waters beyond 12 nautical miles from Rockall is neither claimed by Britain nor recognised by Denmark (for the
Faroe Islands),
Iceland or
Ireland. ==See also==