Bukhara slave trade

Bukhara was a city along the Silk Road since ancient times, and was thus a center of trade. Bukhara is known from at least 6th century BC. The city was a part of Persia in antiquity and the First Turkic Khaganate. During the Middle Ages, the city fell after the Islamic conquest of Persia and was a part of the Abbasid Caliphate before gaining independence during the Samanid Empire. Bukhara has been called a center of Islam in Central Asia, or the "Eastern Dome of Islam". ==Antiquity==

The ancient Silk Road connecting the Mediterranean world and China in East Asia may have existed as early as the 3rd century BC, since Chinese silk has been found in Rome has been dated to about 200 BC. The Silk Road connected to the Mediterranean world via two routes, which met in Bukhara, who thus served as an important center in the Silk Road trade. From China, the Silk Road continued over the Tian Shan, Hami, Turpan, Almalik, Tashkent, Samarkand, and finally Bukhara, where it split in two main roads: a southern route from Bukhara to Merv and from there to Antioch, Trebizond, or Aleppo; or the northern route from Bukhara over the Karakum Desert to the Caspian Sea, Astrakhan, and Kazan close to the Black Sea. The Silk Road did not sell only textiles, jewels, metals, and cosmetics, but also slaves connecting the Silk Road slave trade to the Bukhara slave trade as well as the Black Sea slave trade. ==Samanid Empire (9th–10th centuries) ==

Bukhara was a capital of the Samanid Empire. During the Samanid Empire, Bukhara was a major center of the slave trade in Central Asia. The Samanid Empire was strategically well situated geographically to function as a key supplier of slaves to the Islamic world, because it lay in a religious border zone between Dar al-Islam (The Muslim world), and Dar al-Harb, the world of non-Muslim infidels, who by Islamic law were a legitimate target for slaves to the Muslim world. Beginning in the late 10th century, these incursions marked a significant chapter in the history of South Asia, with Ghaznavid forces penetrating deep into the Indian subcontinent, including the Punjab region and northern India. The primary objectives of these campaigns included the acquisition of wealth and slaves, the propagation of Islam, and the establishment of Ghaznavid rule in the region. Slaves were imported to Bukhara from different non-Muslim lands and via Bukhara to the Muslim world over Persia to the Middle East, and over the Hindu Kush (in present-day Afghanistan) in to India. The situation was similar to other religious border zones in Muslim lands, which were also slave trade centers: such as Al-Andalus in Spain, which were the center of the al-Andalus slave trade; Muslim North Africa, which were the center of the trans-Saharan slave trade and the Red Sea slave trade; as well as Muslim East Africa, which was the center of the Indian Ocean slave trade. The Samanid slave trade constituted one of the two great suppliers of slaves to the Muslim market in the Abbasid Caliphate; the other being the Khazar slave trade, which supplied it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands. The Samanid slave trade was one of the major routes of European saqaliba-slaves to the Islamic Middle East, alongside the Prague slave trade and the Balkan slave trade. The Samanid regulated the transit slave trade across their territories, requiring a fee of 70–100 dirhams and a license (jawāz) for each slave boy; the same fee but no license for each slave girl; and a lesser fee, 20–30 dirhams, for each adult woman. Turkic slaves were the main slave supply of the Samanid slave trade, and regularly formed a part of the land tax sent to the Abbasid capital of Baghdad; the geographer Al-Maqdisi (ca. 375/985) noted that in his time the annual levy (ḵarāj) included 1,020 slaves. During the Ghaznavid campaigns in India in the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Indians were captured and sold on the Central Asian slave markets; in 1014 "the army of Islam brought to Ghazna about 200,000 captives (qarib do sit hazar banda), and much wealth, so that the capital appeared like an Indian city, no soldier of the camp being without wealth, or without many slaves", and during the expedition of the Ghaznavid ruler Sultan Ibrahim to the Multan area of northwestern India 100,000 captives were brought back to Central Asia, and the Ghaznavids were said to have captured "500,000 thousand slaves, beautiful men and women". Islamic law prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was thus a large demand for non-Muslim slaves in Islamic territory. The Vikings sold both Christian and Pagan European captives to the Muslims, who referred to them as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both pagan Slavic, Finnic, and Baltic Eastern Europeans as well as Christian Europeans. People taken captive during the Viking raids in all across Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via the Volga trade route to present-day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wolin, and Dublin; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate, but from the early 10th century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate. Also Slavic Pagans were captured and enslaved by Vikings, Madjars, Khazars and Volga Bulgars, who transported them to Volga Bulgaria, where they were sold to Muslim slave traders and continued to Khwarazm and the Samanids, with a minor part being exported to the Byzantine Empire. This was a major trade; the Samanids were the main source of Arab silver to Europe via this route, The slave trade between the Vikings and Bukhara via present-day Russia ended when the Vikings converted to Christianity in the 11th century. However, Eastern Europeans were still exported to the slave trade in Central Asia. During the warfare between the Russian principalities in the 12th century, Russian princes allowed their Cuman (Kipchak) allies to enslave peasants from the territory of opposing Russian principalities, and sell them to slave traders in Central Asia. Slave market The slaves were both sold at the Bukhara slave market for domestic use in the Samanid Empire, as well as sold to slave traders and exported to other lands in the Middle East, particularly to the Abbasid Caliphate. Turkic men were particularly preferred to supply the Abbasid Army of ghilman slave soldiers in Baghdad. and Turkic slave soldiers were to become a popular ethnicity from the beginning, eventually the preferred choice of ethnicity for this slave category. In addition to slave soldiers, Turkic male slaves were also popular as palace slaves, and Turkic slaves served as cupbearers to rulers such as the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, whose Turkic cupbearer and favorite Ayāz b. Aymaq played a political role at the Ghaznavid court. The slave trade was the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, and alongside agriculture and other trade, the slave trade was the economic base of the state. ==Chagatai Khanate and Timurid Empire (13th–15th centuries) ==

By the time of the Mongol campaigns in Central Asia, Bukhara belonged to the Khwarazmian Empire. The city was a still flourishing as a commercial center of the slave trade in Central Asia. During the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire, Bukhara was pillaged after the Siege of Bukhara in February 1220. After the conquest of the Mongol Empire, Bukhara belonged to the Chagatai Khanate (1266–1347) and then the Timurid Empire (1370–1501). Slave trade Bukhara was rebuilt after have been pillaged by the Mongols in 1220. Having been a major center of slave trade in Central Asia for centuries, Bukhara was integrated in the extensive network of the slave trade of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire conducted a massive international slave trade with captives during the continuous Mongol invasions and conquests, and founded a network of cities to traffic slaves from one end of the Empire to the other. This network functioned to traffic different categories of slaves to slave markets where they were most requested; such as trafficking Muslim slaves to Christian lands and Christian slaves to Muslim lands. The Mongols developed systematic methods for capturing slaves, often selecting a portion of the male and female population from conquered cities for enslavement. Skilled artisans, craftsmen, and concubines were especially valued as slaves. Chinese slaves were exported extensively, both within the empire and abroad, including to Mongolia and Muslim regions. The Mongol Yuan dynasty in China controlled many government-owned slaves used for military, agricultural, and institutional labor. Chinese slaves during the 13th-15th centuries, particularly under Mongol rule, were exploited in various capacities reflecting their skills and the needs of their owners. Many were forced into labor-intensive roles such as agricultural work, public construction projects, and military servitude. Skilled Chinese artisans, craftsmen, and specialists were often compelled to serve in workshops or as personal retainers to Mongol elites, leveraging their expertise for the empire's benefit. Others were used as domestic servants, concubines, or eunuchs within the Mongol imperial household. Indian slaves During the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), Hindus were enslaved in such large quantities for export to the Central Asian slave market that Indian slaves became low price slaves, available and affordable, and increased their demand in international markets. Turkic male slaves kept being viewed as the ideal race for military slavery, though many or most Turks were exploited for other forms of labour, including domestic service, as cup bearers, hard labour, etc. Turkic men were popular as slave soldiers (mamluks) in the slave market of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Rasulid dynasty of Yemen (1229–1454). Kitan slaves from North China were popular slaves for the Muslim slave market in prior to the Mongol conquest, and were reputed for their beauty in Central Asia in Iran. In the domestic market in Central Asia, slaves were used in private households, to maintain the garden, and to cultivate the land and managed the livestock on the plantations of Central Asia's wealthy families; they were used for military slaves, as laborers to maintain irrigation canals, in brick factories, and trained to work in construction engineering. Private individuals could own hundreds of slaves: one Juybari Sheikh (a Naqshbandi Sufi leader) owned over 500 slaves, forty of them pottery producers, and others agricultural laborers, tending livestock, and carpenters. Indian slaves were particularly appreciated as skilled artisans because of the advanced Indian textile industry, agricultural production and architecture. A particular category were sex slavery, and attractive slave girls were sold for a higher price than artisans skilled at construction engineering. ==Khanate and Emirate of Bukhara (16th–19th centuries) ==

The slave trade in Khiva and Bukhara was described by the English traveler Anthony Jenkinson in the mid-16th century, at a time when they were major global slave trade centers and the "slave capitals of the world". In the 19th century, the Khivean slave trade became bigger than the Bukhara slave trade, but both maintained many similarities. Turkmen tribal groups performed regular slave raids, referred to as alaman, toward two sources of slaves; Russian and German settlers along the Ural, and Persian pilgrims to Mashad, two categories who as Christians and Shia-Muslims respectively were seen as religiously legitimate to target for enslavement. The slave trade was a major economic and social institution in these khanates, with Persian slaves constituting a significant proportion of the population in places like Bukhara. Persian women were especially prized for harems, while men were often exploited for labor . The Persian government was largely unable to stop these raids and abductions, lacking the military capacity to counter the highly mobile Turkmen horsemen. Occasional punitive expeditions were launched, but these had little lasting effect. The slave trade in Khiva and Bukhara only began to decline after the Russian conquest of Central Asia in the late 19th century, which brought an end to the open slave markets, though clandestine slavery persisted for some time. Christian Russian settlers were as non-Muslim seen as legitimate target for enslavement, and abducted from the frontiers by Crimean Tatars, Nogay, Qalmaq, and Bashkir, and transported to the slave markets of Khiva, Balkh, and Bukhara. The practice became known as the "harvesting of the steppe," with raids typically occurring twice a year, during harvest and winter. The Slavic slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars were exploited primarily as forced labor and domestic servants. After being forcibly taken in brutal raids, many were shackled and marched to Crimea, where they were sold in large slave markets such as Caffa, then trafficked into central Asia for markets like Bukhara. The slaves endured harsh conditions, including physical mutilation and torture to prevent escape or rebellion. They were subjected to grueling labor during the day while confined in prisons or chains at night, surviving on meager, often rotten food. Women, especially the youngest, were frequently exploited for sexual purposes. Indian people A source of slaves were Hindu Indians imported via the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan, who were popular for the domestic market in Bukhara. Slave market In the 16th century, Bukhara exported slaves to Central Asia, the Middle East and India. The Bukhara slave market was a destination for slave merchants from India and other countries of the "East", who came to Bukhara to buy slaves. The slaves were exported from Bukhara to other Islamic khanates in Central Asia. Bukhara also used slaves for their domestic market. The use of slaves in Bukhara followed the normal model of slavery in the Islamic world. Female slaves were used as domestic servants or as concubines (sex slaves). Baron Meyendorff reported in the 1820s that a skilled artisan could be sold for about 100 tilla, while an attractive slave girls could be sold for as much as 150 tilla. In the 19th century, the slave markets of Khiva and Bukhara were still among the biggest slave markets in the world. The Turkmen were so known for their slave raids that it was said that Turkmen "would not hesitate to sell into slavery the Prophet himself, did he fall into their hands". The harem was abolished when the Soviets conquered the area and the khan Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan was forced to flee; he reportedly left the harem women behind, but did take some of his dancing boys with him. ==Abolition ==

The slave market in Bukhara as well as that in Khiva was banned in 1873 after Russian conquest. However, the process was different. Bukhara became a Russian protectorate after the Russian conquest of Bukhara in 1868. The Russians did not have complete control over Bukhara, where the Emir was still formally in charge. When the slave trade in neighboring Khiva was abolished after the Russian conquest of Khiva in 1873, this put pressure on the Russians to use their power to abolish slavery also in Bukhara. Russia was under pressure by both nationally and internationally Western opinion to abolish slavery and slave trade. The Russian-Bukharan Treaty of 1873 abolished the Bukhara slave trade. In contrast to neighboring Khiva, slavery as such was not banned in Bukhara after slave trade was banned. The Russian General Governor congratulated Emir Muzaffar bin Nasrullah for having abolished the slave trade in Bukhara, and expressed his hope that also slavery itself would be gradually phased out during a ten-year period. The Emir promised the Russians that he would abolish slavery in 1883 on condition that the former slaves remained with their slavers until then, after which they would be given the right to buy themselves free; after this promise, the Russians abstained from pressuring the emir more in the issue to avoid damaging their diplomatic contact with him. Aftermath However, despite the official abolition of 1873, the slave trade continued illegally with the blessing of the emir, who himself continued to buy Persian slaves from Turkmen slave traders to staff his harem with slave soldiers and his harem with slave concubines. In 1878, a Russian agent reported that he had witnessed slave trade in Bukhara, and in 1882 the English traveler Henry Lansdell was made aware about the still ongoing slave trade. Emir Muzaffar bin Nasrullah did not abolish slavery in 1883 as he had promised the Russians. However his son Emir 'Abd al-Ahad Khan fulfilled his father's promise by officially abolishing slavery in the Emirate of Bukhara. However, slavery in Bukhara continued, and the Royal Household and the Royal Harem continued to be staffed with slaves acquired from Turkmen slave trade agents in secrecy; when the Emirate of Bukhara was annexed by the communist Soviet Union after the Bukharan Revolution and the Bukhara operation (1920), when the last Emir, Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan, fled from the Red Army and left his slave concubines behind. ==See also==