"True Israel" The Hebrew Bible represents the beliefs of a small sector within the Israelite community who were exiled by the Babylonians and emphasized on
orthodox worship, genealogical purity and adherence to the codified law. In the earliest stages of the Persian period, the returnees insisted on a strict separation between themselves ("Israel") and those who had never gone into exile ("Canaanites"), to the extent of prohibiting intermarriage; this was presented in terms of religious purity, but there may have been a practical concern for land ownership. Ethnic markers for Israelite (or later, Jewish) identity were radically reformed, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent and/or faith in Yahweh, compared to
circumcision. Views on
gentile integration varied across Jewish schools of thought. The
Sadducees doubted the possibility of gentiles becoming Jews but were tolerant of cross-cultural interactions. The
Essenes community believed gentiles, including proselytes, were ritually impure, but the Essenes were even stricter and regarded other Jews as impure until they completed a prolonged
initiation ritual. Likewise, the
Zealots and
Sicarii held
xenophobic views but were willing to ally with Idumeans (or
Edomites). Whilst the Zealots shared beliefs with the
Pharisees, the latter were more democratic, respected the status quo, and believed
Jewishness was a matter of choice rather than birth. Some historians argue the Pharisees were more interested in converting non-Pharisaical Jews. Whilst most contemporary Jews had no problem with integrating gentiles, a minority adopted views from
Jubilees and
4QMMT, which promoted the idea that Jews were "radically discontinuous with the rest of humanity". Other Jews were dissatisfied with the
Pentateuch's national-geographic definition of Jewishness, which did not sufficiently distinguish the multi-ethnic inhabitants of Judea from Jewish diasporas. For example, the Hasmoneans were criticized for blurring the line between gentile and Jew when they converted Idumeans but others, who held a strict interpretation of , feared the Idumean Herodians would usurp the Hasmoneans. But most Jews believed the Idumeans were acceptable converts since they lived in the
Promised Land.
Emphasis on temples Second Temple Judaism was centered not on synagogues, which began to appear only in the 3rd centuryBCE, but on the Temple, and a cycle of continual animal
sacrifice. Torah, or ritual law, was also important, and the Temple priests were responsible for teaching it, but the concept of scripture developed only slowly. Thus the reading and study of scripture was a late development. The written Torah and the books of the Prophets were accepted as authoritative by the 1st centuryCE, but beyond this core the different Jewish groups continued to accept different groups of books as authoritative.
Priesthood The priesthood underwent profound changes with the Second Temple. Under the First Temple, the priesthood had been subordinate to the kings, but in the Second Temple, with the monarchy and even the state in the hands of foreign rulers, they became independent. The priesthood under the High Priest, which was unheard of in earlier times, became the governing authority, making the
province of Yehud a
de facto theocracy, although it seems unlikely that they had significant autonomy. In the Hellenistic period, the High Priest continued to play a vital role with both cultic and civic obligations, and the office reached its height under the Hasmoneans who made themselves priest-kings. Both Herod and the Romans severely reduced the importance of the High Priest, appointing and deposing High Priests to suit their purposes.
Integration of Idumean customs Since the Hasmonean era, the Idumeans were heavily integrated in Judean society. Idumean-majority populations existed in southern and western Judea, and they intermingled with Judeans. It is disputed whether this integration was forced or voluntary. Regardless, their presence was believed to influence Second Temple Judaism, particularly Pharisaical Judaism. They introduced religious innovations such as
ritual immersion in baths, burial in caves with
kokhim, and the perforation of pottery vessels so they could be purified. The Herodians continued this trend, with Judea, Jerusalem and the Temple being shaped by Idumean culture. Their contributions were obfuscated by religious Jews belonging to later variants of Second Temple Judaism and
Rabbinic Judaism. Hayah Katz sees these ritual immersion rituals as being stricter than the rituals found in the First Temple era. For example, many Jews argued that only full-body immersion could achieve ritual purity.
A typical day at the Second Temple of Jerusalem The day in the Second Temple in Jerusalem until the time of Jesus unfolded as follows: • for the Jews, the liturgical day ended and began with sundown: as soon as night fell, the doors of the temple were closed and some Levites manned them, while others kept vigil in prayer in special spaces and still others slept; • when it was morning, the priests would take a ritual bath to purify themselves and prepare for the day's liturgy. The altar of burnt offerings was cleaned and cloths were gathered to be placed on the special altar; • the Jewish
purim was drawn to draw the priest who was to sacrifice the lamb behind closed doors. The outcome of the draw was not seen as random, but was intended as an expression of God's will; • the designated priest would sprinkle the altar of sacrifices with the blood of the day's captive. This lamb was then divided into 12 pieces (equal to the number of the twelve closed tribes of Israel) and placed on the altar of sacrifices. The lamb had to be without blemish and before it was sacrificed it was watered one last time; • after the first morning sacrifice, a priest would go to the highest place in the temple to wait for the sunrise that would start the liturgical day. According to a tradition of the
School of Hillel (the strictest of the
Tannaite period), the morning sacrifice had the ability to erase Israel's sins; • the temple doors were opened and five of the seven
menorah candles were lit. The priests would move to the stone hall (where meetings of the
Sanhedrin also took place) to recite the
shemà Israel (cf. , , ); • after this prayer, which the pious Israelite recited every morning and evening, from among the 24 priestly families from the temple the priest who was to offer incense was drawn and the last two candles of the
Menorah were thus lit; • a priest would take the
magrefà (probably a bronze musical instrument) and throw it by the altar. The sound of the instrument was the signal for the worshippers to gather in the men's courtyard. The Levites would stand on the steps to the
Nicanor gate to chant the psalms; • upon leaving the Holy One, the priest would go to the platform of the altar of sacrifices to bless the people by raising his hands above his head (cf. ); • after the blessing, 12 other priests designated for the ceremony would go up the ramp and proceed to offer the twelve parts into which the sacrificial lamb had been divided. They would each hand their part to the presiding priest, who would take it, swing it over the altar and throw it into the fire; • when the offering was completed,
cymbals were sounded and the Levites began to sing, a sign of the conclusion of the Lamb's morning sacrifice. From then on, throughout the day the faithful could present their personal sacrifices. The priests received a portion of the meat of the sacrifices for the forgiveness of sins; • during the ninth hour the vespertine sacrifice took place, repeating the offering of the incense of the lamb. At the end of the ceremony, the priests would lay down their garments in the designated closets and return to their quarters. On Saturdays and on feast days, during the day a third lamb was offered for all the people. ==Intellectual currents==