Shtetl

and Congress Poland, A is defined by Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern as "an East European market town in private possession of a Polish magnate, inhabited mostly but not exclusively by Jews" and from the 1790s onward and until 1915 shtetls were also "subject to Russian bureaucracy", as the Russian Empire had annexed the entire Lithuania and the eastern part of Poland, and was administering the area where the settlement of Jews was permitted. The concept of culture describes the traditional way of life of East European Jews. In literature by authors such as Sholem Aleichem and Isaac Bashevis Singer, shtetls are portrayed as pious communities following Orthodox Judaism, socially stable and unchanging despite outside influence or attacks. ==History==

The history of the oldest Eastern European began around the 13th century. Throughout this history, shtetls saw periods of relative tolerance and prosperity as well as times of extreme poverty and hardships, including pogroms in the 19th-century Russian Empire. According to Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog (1962): The May Laws introduced by Tsar Alexander III of Russia in 1882 banned Jews from rural areas and towns of fewer than ten thousand people. In the 20th century, revolutions, civil wars, industrialisation and the Holocaust destroyed traditional existence. The decline of the started from about the 1840s. Contributing factors included poverty as a result of changes in economic climate (including industrialisation which hurt the traditional Jewish artisan and the movement of trade to the larger towns), repeated fires destroying the wooden homes, and overpopulation. Also, the antisemitism of the Russian Imperial administrators and the Polish landlords, as well as the resultant pogroms in the 1880s, made life difficult for residents of the shtetl. From the 1880s until 1915 up to 2 million Jews left Eastern Europe. At the time about three-quarters of its Jewish population lived in areas defined as s. The Holocaust resulted in the total extermination of these towns. It was not uncommon for the entire Jewish population of a to be rounded up and murdered in a nearby forest or taken to the various concentration camps. Some inhabitants were able to emigrate before and after the Holocaust, which resulted in many Ashkenazi Jewish traditions being passed on. However, the as a community of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe, as well as much of the culture specific to this way of life, was all but eradicated by the Nazis. In Europe, the Orthodox community in Antwerp, Belgium, is widely described as the last , composed of about 12,000 people. The Gateshead, United Kingdom Orthodox community is also sometimes called a shtetl. Brno, Czech Republic, has a significant Jewish history and Yiddish words are part of the now dying-out Hantec slang. The word "" (pronounced ) refers to Brno itself. Qırmızı Qəsəbə, in Azerbaijan, thought to be the only 100% Jewish community not in Israel or the United States, has been described as a . ==Culture==

Not only did the Jews of the speak Yiddish, a language rarely spoken by outsiders, but they also had a unique rhetorical style, rooted in traditions of Talmudic learning: This approach to good deeds finds its roots in Jewish religious views, summarized in Pirkei Avot by Shimon Hatzaddik's "three pillars": Material things were neither disdained nor extremely praised in the . Learning and education were the ultimate measures of worth in the eyes of the community, while money was secondary to status. As the formed an entire town and community, residents worked diverse jobs such as shoe-making , metallurgy, or tailoring of clothes. Studying was considered the most valuable and hardest work of all. Learned men who did not provide bread and relied on their wives for money were not frowned upon but praised. There is a belief found in historical and literary writings that the disintegrated before it was destroyed during World War II; however, Joshua Rothenberg of the Institute of East-European Jewish Affairs at Brandeis University argued that this alleged cultural break-up is never clearly defined. He argued that the whole Jewish life in Eastern Europe, not only in , "was in a state of permanent crisis, both political and economic, of social uncertainty and cultural conflicts". Rothenberg outlines a number of reasons for the image of "disintegrating '" and other kinds of stereotyping. For one, it was an "anti-" propaganda of the Zionist movement. Yiddish and Hebrew literature can only to a degree be considered to represent the complete reality. It mostly focused on the elements that attract attention, rather than on an "average Jew". Also, in successful America, memories of , in addition to sufferings, were colored with nostalgia and sentimentalism. ==Artistic depictions==

Literary references The city of Chełm, in what is today southeastern Poland, figures prominently in the Jewish humor as the legendary town of fools: the Wise Men of Chelm. Kasrilevka, the setting of many of Sholem Aleichem's stories, and Anatevka, the setting of the musical Fiddler on the Roof (based on other stories of Sholem Aleichem), are other notable fictional . Devorah Baron made aliyah to Ottoman Palestine in 1910, after a pogrom destroyed her shtetl near Minsk. But she continued writing about life long after she had arrived in Palestine. Many of Joseph Roth's books are based on on the Eastern fringes of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and most notably on his hometown Brody. Many of Isaac Bashevis Singer's short stories and novels are set in . Singer's mother was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj, a town in south-eastern Poland. As a child, Singer lived in Biłgoraj for periods with his family, and he wrote that life in the small town made a deep impression on him. The 2002 novel Everything Is Illuminated, by Jonathan Safran Foer, tells a fictional story set in the Ukrainian Trachimbrod (Trochenbrod). The 1992 children's book Something from Nothing, written and illustrated by Phoebe Gilman, is an adaptation of a traditional Jewish folk tale set in a fictional . In 1996 the Frontline programme "" broadcast; it was about Polish Christian and Jewish relations. Harry Turtledove's 2011 short story "Shtetl Days", begins in a typical reminiscent of the works of Aleichem, Roth, et al., but soon reveals a plot twist which subverts the genre. The award-winning 2014 novel The Books of Jacob by Olga Tokarczuk features many communities across the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Painting Many Jewish artists in Eastern Europe dedicated much of their artistic careers to depictions of the . These include Marc Chagall, Chaim Goldberg, Chaïm Soutine and Mané-Katz. Their contribution is in making a permanent record in color of the life that is described in literature—the klezmers, the weddings, the marketplaces and the religious aspects of the culture. Photography • Alter Kacyzne (1885–1941), Jewish writer (Yiddish-language prose and poetry) and photographer; immortalized Jewish life in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s. • Roman Vishniac (1897–1990), Russian-, later American-Jewish biologist and photographer; photographed traditional Jewish life in Eastern Europe in 1935–39. Film • The Dybbuk, 1937 • The Fixer, 1968 • Fiddler on the Roof, 1971 • Yentl, 1983 • Train of Life, 1998 • An American Pickle, 2020 • Shttl, 2023 – a Yiddish–Ukrainian drama depicting the lives of a on the eve of Operation Barbarossa. A was built outside of Kyiv specifically for the film, and was set to become a historical museum. However, it is still unknown if the set survived the Russian invasion. Documentaries • Shtetl, 1996 • Return to My Shtetl Delatyn, 1992 ==See also==