, wife of
Suleiman the Magnificent, to Sigismund Augustus, complimenting him on his accession to the throne, 1549 Sigismund II's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant
Reformation into Poland and Lithuania, and the
peero-cratic upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the
Polish nobility; he saw the collapse of the
Knights of the Sword in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of
Livonia as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of
Ottoman power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than the stern and majestic
Sigismund I the Old. Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterised all the
Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish
Sejm and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund II wished, and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament's sittings, he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in the simple grey coat of a
Mazovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the
Germans. He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks. Sigismund II Augustus vested several localities with
town rights, including
Chmielnik,
Daleszyce,
Dzisna,
Filipów,
Merkinė,
Osieck,
Siemiatycze,
Wasilków,
Wisztyniec,
Augustów, founded by Sigismund himself, and
Knyszyn, home to one of his favourite residences.
Recognition of marriage with Barbara , ca. 1553
Struggle with opposition From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged Polish
nobility, after many of them refused to recognize his marriage to Barbara and accept her as their Queen. Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost, and who departed from
Wawel and went to
Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage.. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first
Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548, where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless the King repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute who charmed the king for her own benefit. The young monarch even considered
abdicating. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund also formed an alliance with his former father-in-law,
Ferdinand I Habsburg in 1549. Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On the other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplary taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship "one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history". Sigismund Augustus provided luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The royal pair often visited royal hunting residency in
Niepołomice. The King also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed a lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund. Barbara was officially recognized by Polish nobility as legitimate royal wife in 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm. The matter of her coronation was not discussed but, with opposition broken, she was ultimately crowned as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate
Mikołaj Dzierzgowski. Queen Bona also decided to accept her son's marriage, sending a messenger in 1551 who informed Barbara of her decision.
Death of Barbara During their marriage, Barbara suffered from poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation, her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea,
nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from the entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at
Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony. It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body was transported to
Vilnius Cathedral, where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed in black until his death. The cause of Barbara's death is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested
sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of supposed affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumours that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza. However, modern historians and experts point to
cervical cancer or
uterine inflammation.
Third marriage . The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract a third, purely political union with his first cousin-once-removed, the
Austrian archduchess
Catherine, to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund II Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organising a pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives. Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at the Polish court; she was tasked with
espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but by marrying Catherine, he obtained a promise from Austria to stay neutral and abandon plans with
Russia. This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected to the return of
John Sigismund Zápolya and
Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with the Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out about Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to
Radom and excluded her from political life.
Livonia in
Washington, D.C. During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted
Albert of Prussia to introduce the Protestant
Reformation and secularise the southern part of the
Teutonic Order State. Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in the
Duchy of Prussia in 1525, but under
Polish suzerainty. However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the northernmost part of the region were met with fierce resistance and divided the
Livonian Confederation. When Albert's brother
Wilhelm and
Archbishop of Riga attempted to implement a
Lutheran church order in his
diocese, the
Catholic estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his
bishop coadjutor,
Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg. As Prussia was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557, the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the
Treaty of Pozvol on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and
de facto became part of Poland.
Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted. The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans of expanding into the
Baltic coast. Sigismund directed the alliance against
Ivan the Terrible to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid
casus belli against the
Russian Tsardom. On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the
Livonian War, which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland (
Latvia, southern
Estonia) and
Sweden (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as
Polish Livonia or
Inflanty; it was settled with colonists from Poland proper, resulting in systematic
polonisation of these lands.
Northern Seven Years' War of King Sigismund Augustus, made in
Nuremberg by
Kunz Lochner, 1550s.
Livrustkammaren in Stockholm. When the
Kalmar Union between Sweden and
Denmark was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of
Gdańsk (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and
piracy. The capital,
Kraków, was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the
Vistula river to the southern province of
Lesser Poland. Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted Sigismund's order to send privateers and created the first Polish Admiralty in its city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or
Protestants who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for the status of an independent "
city state". 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination. The war ended as
status quo ante bellum in 1570 with the
Treaty of Stettin, which was signed by Bishop
Martin Kromer on behalf of Sigismund Augustus. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered
naval fleet (Naval Commission) in 1568.
Union of Lublin ; Sigismund stands in the center holding a
crucifix among nobles, envoys and the
clergy. Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been the
Union of Lublin, which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, jointly with German-speaking
Royal Prussia and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate. At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian
magnates were afraid of losing their powers, since the proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with
petty nobility rather than the wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the
Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars, which endured for over 150 years. During the
Second War, Lithuania lost of its territory to Russia, and the final defeat in the
Livonian War would result in the country's incorporation into the
Russian Tsardom. Furthermore, the
Poles were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a
quid pro quo. The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law,
Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł (), who viewed the agreement as "peaceful
annexation of Lithuania" by Poland. He also resisted
polonisation policies which forced ethnic
Lithuanians to change their names and native language to
Polish or
Latin. As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed the members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing outrage among the most renowned members of the Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the
personal union between the two countries created by the marriage of
Jadwiga with
Jogaila in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one
elected monarch who would simultaneously reign over both domains. The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near the Polish city of
Lublin, were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian
Podlachia,
Volhynia,
Podolia and
Kiev provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local
Ruthenian (Ukrainian)
gentry. Those historic regions, which once belonged to the
Kievan Rus', were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the
Kingdom of Ruthenia or "Ukraine" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the
Galicia–Volhynia Wars. Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to the Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong
westernisation and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian
Eastern Orthodox Church by future King
Sigismund III Vasa. Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the
Cossack uprisings against Polish domination and the
Partitions of Poland, when Ukraine was annexed by the
Russian Empire. The Lithuanians were compelled to return to the Sejm negotiations under
Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland; however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569, and on 1 July 1569, the Union of Lublin was signed at
Lublin Castle, thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus
ratified the unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and most multicultural countries of 16th century Europe.
Health and final years '', by
Jan Matejko Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that the king had
venereal disease which caused him to have fertility issues. His marriage was a matter of great political import to
Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. Sigismund was not free to remarry until Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later. As the King lost all hope of children by his third wife, he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of the most beautiful of his countrywomen,
Barbara Giza (said to physically resemble late queen Barbara Radziwiłł) and
Anna Zajączkowska. On 12 September 1571 Barbara ultimately gave birth to a daughter, also named Barbara, whom Sigismund acknowledged as his child. at
Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, Poland. Below the tomb of his father,
Sigismund I the Old. During spring 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in
Knyszyn. While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal
Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to
consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and
lumbar. Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6:00 pm, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body was placed on a
catafalque and remained at the nearby
Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573, when it was transported back to Kraków through
Warsaw. After interring the remains of
Barbara Radziwiłł in
Vilnius Cathedral in 1551, Sigismund intended to re-buried her in
Church of St. Anne, and it seems from deatils of his will that he would prefer to be buried alongside her. He wrote in his will that he wishes to be interred together with Barbara in Chuch of St. Anne if he dies in Lithuania, or in Cracow if he dies in Poland. Knyszyn, where Sigimund died, was originally Lithuanian territory, however, it was annexed by the Crown of Poland in 1569. Consequently, he was laid to rest at the
Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. Sigismund's wish to have Barbara and
Queen Elizabeth reburied in St. Anne's Church was also ignored and they have remained resting in Vilnius Cathedral. Sigismund II Augustus was the last male member of the
Jagiellonian dynasty. The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty. His illegitimate daughter by Giza was adopted by her mother's new husband (Michał Woroniecki) and given her stepfather's surname. In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the
Habsburgs as member of the
Order of the Golden Fleece. == Religion ==